Developing the Learning Gateway

An exploration into the possible use of SharePoint Learning Kit to support teaching and learning across the whole school using Experiential eLearning

Introduction

The 2020 Vision that is sweeping the globe foresees a time according to Gilbert (2006) where religious diversity will be greater than social diversity with “further concentrations of minority ethnic groups in particular geographical areas”.  Young people will need to be better qualified to secure employment and “will be expected to take personal responsibility for their impact on the environment”.

It is the responsibility of schools to address the issues regarding the lack of prospects for minority ethnic groups ensuring that their achievement and attainment reduces the gap of social inequalities.  Helping each pupil achieve society’s aspirations that are outlined in the Every Child Matters framework.

To meet this challenge involves Personalised Learning (see appendixes), a highly structured and responsive approach focussing on the individual needs or each pupil.  This requires a greater collaboration between schools, learners and their caregivers to ensure the pupils’ achievement is successful.

With the rise and impact of Learning Management Systems and ICT within education “it is crucial that we engage with developments in digital technologies at the earliest stages” (Facer, 2006) however “there will need to be changes both to the way the education system operates and to the practice of many teachers” (Gilbert, 2006).

The aims of this proposal are:

  • To understand the school and local community
  • To critique the current delivery of resources and suggest a move towards a more constructivist method.
  • To explore the possible impact of Learning Objects
  • To develop the student tracking system by calculating students’ knowledge and retention at the beginning and end of a module.
  • To enhance the possibilities of personalised learning

 


Situation

Bradford, the “4th largest metropolitan district” in England, is politically split, between Labour’s 33 seats and Conservative’s 32, whilst also being culturally divided where inner city areas are ghettoised with minority ethnic groups.  The school sector is predominantly segregated according to Education Bradford (2005, cited in House of Commons, 2007) where pupils attend schools with a population comprising over 90% of one “single cultural or ethnic identity”.  X is one of those schools, predominantly Muslim, containing a high percentage of Pakistani pupils alongside other minority ethnic groups, Bangladeshi, Gypsy and Roma pupils, Travellers and Black pupils, who nationally “do not achieve well” according to the Commission for Race Equality.  Students’ attainment on entry is well below average and a higher than average numbers of students have learning difficulties and/or disabilities; nevertheless the school received Outstanding from Ofsted in 2007.   This diverse culture “is considered desirable and necessary for the development of secure ethnic identities and positive self-feelings” however diversity “is also challenged for being inequitable and a threat to social cohesion” (Verkuyten. 2006).

Situated in the heart of BD3, an inner city area undergoing regeneration, which Regen 2000 claim “was an area of high unemployment, poor housing, poor health, poor education and high levels of drug-related crime”, has received around £150 million from government and private investment during the period 2000 – 2008 to help develop “an economically active and self-generating area” (Bradford Economic Partnership).  Yet near one year on, after the target date for complete regeneration, this area still reflects social deprivation, where the streets are strewn with litter and crime still prevails embodying the disaffection and the break down in community cohesion (Chattoo et al, 2004).  West-Burnham (1997) describes, “Attitudes and `theories of practice’ are constructs derived from a prevailing culture and expressed, reinforced and elaborated into practice through language”.  To enable the community to develop we need to look at the heart, X, and readdress the disaffection through transforming the prevalent social misconceptions and poor attitude, developing a climate that shines like a beacon throughout the community.  As West-Burnham continues to explain “If schools are to respond to the fundamental changes that are taking place in social and economic terms then it is necessary to re-conceptualise leadership”.  The Commission for Race Equality insist, “All schools make clear what their contribution is to community cohesion”.

In a bid to change the surrounding area and community attitude, senior management have developed a scheme to “Tidy up X and BD3”.  This is currently coinciding with Phase 3 of the Building Schools of the Future (BSF) consultation with Bradford Council, which will contribute to the regeneration of BD3.

To become a School of the Future requires a major investment into learning technologies to help meet the required standards.  This venture in technology must be accompanied by a comparable investment by teachers and other employees to realise the full benefits of the technology.  However there tends to be a lack of ICT skills and experience within the school sector nationally to ensure the technologies used are to their full potential (Microsoft, 2007).  In spite of this the school received Specialist Status in Maths and Computing in 2006, sponsored by Microsoft, (a deal struck up with the DfES to help around 100 schools situated in poor areas which was “the subject of an Office of Fair Trading investigation” (Lettice, 2005)), and is well equipped with new technologies, whilst the sponsorship “will almost certainly become an extremely important device for acquiring additional resources“ (Bennet and Gabriel, 1999) in the future, Microsoft’s monopoly should be carefully considered as there are free open source applications readily available.

The school’s intranet is delivered by Microsoft Office SharePoint Server, which acts as the school’s Learning Gateway (LG) whose objectives are:

  • Achievement for all
  • Excellence in teaching
  • Improve learning

The school has prematurely launched the LG (without fully realising the capabilities) and numerous INSETS have taken place where faculty members across the school have been taught how to upload their resources, Word and PowerPoint files, from the existing Public (Y) drive, a large networked storage drive, to the LG (a system built on internet technologies which has great potential), “Reeves (2002 cited in Nichols, 2003) argues that, in the main, technology is not being used innovatively in education”.  Questions have been raised by staff as for the need to distribute the files through the LG and move away from the Public (Y) drive.  This decision has led to the LG becoming an over glorified file storage system where the course materials are delivered using the internet technologies which as Pan & Hawryszkiewycz (2004) describe does “not provide effective and efficient supports for using these materials to construct knowledge. As a result, learners only passively receive the presented materials”.

The resources uploaded “are designed to make the knowledge transmission easier”, which emphasises “the teacher’s control over what is learned and how it is to be learned” (Nichols, 2003).  This somewhat Behaviourist method “centres on students’ efforts to accumulate knowledge of the natural world and on teachers’ efforts to transmit it” (Murphy, 1997) which is comparative to the Objectivist learning theory where the learners’ goal is to receive knowledge whilst the teacher is to transmit.  The theory also implies that the learner will gain the same understanding from what is transmitted however as Pan & Hawryszkiewycz (2004) argue the resources “can hardly match to all individual learners”.  This stereotypical view of teaching does not cater for Personalised Learning (PL) where learning takes place through different methods to improve attainment.

Described earlier the pupils’ attainment on entry to the school is well below average, nevertheless the school pays particular focus to assessment for learning (AFL) to improve attainment.  Goal Tests, a recognised online assessment tool provided by Education Development International (EDI), are introduced at the beginning of each year within Key Stage 3, “identifying pupils’ strengths and weaknesses” which support “target setting and tracking pupils’ progress”.  Conversely the scores generally show pupils as having higher levels of attainment than the current National Curriculum (NC) level they are working at (according to the assessment records), which opens the debate whether teaching and learning is personalised in such a way that helps them to achieve (based on the snapshot taken by the Goal Tests) or could the online delivery method of the Goal Tests be the answer to improving attainment.

 

 

Proposal

Birbili (2005) has discovered that schools are finding it “increasingly difficult to motivate and keep the interest of their students”.  This is not exclusive to England, as Birbili discusses, how, the individual needs of students are not recognised by schools, resulting in the reportedly high figures of disaffection within the school sector.

During the expansion of the Internet and the development of Web 2.0 the online community has emerged.  Communities like Facebook and Myspace, offer the opportunity to develop online personas, individuality and friendship, for instance Wenger describes these as Communities of Practice (CoP) where “groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly” (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2009) this for instance could be “a clique of pupils defining their identity in the school” (Wenger), creating an opportunity for the Digital Native (DN), a term coined by Prensky (2001) who are “a generation that has grown up with digital technology”, to be heard.   Developing an online digital community could promote community cohesion through blogging regarding the regeneration of the local, physical community as Smith (2003) describes “Members are involved in a set of relationships over time (Lave and Wenger 1991: 98) and communities develop around things that matter to people (Wenger, 1998)”.  Grace (2007) considers the opportunities of developing online communities alongside summer school and found that targeting both primary and secondary schools, helped “to catch and develop children before they’ve had a chance to become disaffected.”

X delivers a summer school program throughout summer for future attendees, namely year 6 pupils from surrounding primary schools.  During this time I propose using “the internet and technology in ways that speak their language” (Masters, 2009) by establishing future pupils’ online identity within the LG alongside developing a communal blog.  Referring to Salmon’s “The five-stage model of online learning”, stage one would be achieved by setting up their ‘My Site’ (a space where users can save and share work; add friends or colleagues for effective communication and collaboration, creating networks where specific users can be targeted with information), which scaffolds on the DN social networking experience.  Explaining that this is a safe online community exclusive to X that is not accessible by people outside should encourage the pupils to complete their profile.  Highlighting their likes / dislikes, building up a picture that teachers can use ‘to get to know’ the individual as “learning and teaching should be founded on an understanding of the learner” (Birbili, 2005).  This will help teachers to develop PL with Learning Objects (LO) appropriate to the individual.

The second stage of Salmon’s model is Socialisation where social conditioning, the understanding of what is right and wrong and what is acceptable in civilised society is reflected online.   Giddens (1986, pp. 8-11, cited in Cosio, 1998) states “We create society at the same time as we are created by it”.  Monty, (2005) describes certain aspects of netiquette, “Always acknowledging feelings and offering support. Allow the feelings of everyone involved in e-tivities to be surfaced, owned, expressed and respected”.  This can be achieved through establishing the communal blog where the pupils would create their online identities and interact with other members of the digital community.  Inviting the new members to participate by letting everybody know they have joined would break the ice.  As the blog develops the context becomes Social Constructivist where the users are invited to share their thoughts regarding BD3.  Initially introducing the concept of what they like, secondary what they don’t like.  This approach provides the links between social, cultural and learning environments, which “makes knowledge construction easier to achieve” (Monty, 2005).  The third task would be to reflect on what other users have written and respond appropriately.  As Smith (1999) describes, “It is learning that is achieved through reflection upon everyday experience and is the way that most of us do our learning”.  It has been uncovered that Muslim pupils “often lack competence in critical analysis and independent thinking” however “acquiring knowledge in Islam is not intended as an end but as a means to stimulate a more elevated moral and spiritual consciousness, leading to faith and righteous action” (Islam).

Once attending X, the NC Level 3 involves “Sharing and Exchanging Ideas” similar to stage three of Salmon’s model “Information Exchange”, which over the summer break the developed online community should have achieved.  Considering Salmon’s model, the DN introduced to a CoP (Lave and Wenger) at the age of 10 should in effect over seven years of future secondary schooling competently (Carver et al, 2007) reach stage 5.  This process scaffolds on their personal experience spent on the web, offering the opportunity to practice transferrable skills within the Constructivist curriculum.

Moallem (2001) highlights 5 areas of consideration for Constructivist teaching and learning:

  • Learning is embedded in a rich authentic problem-solving environment;
  • Authentic versus academic contexts for learning are provided;
  • Provisions for learner control are incorporated;
  • Errors are used as a mechanism to provide feedback on learners’ understanding; and
  • Learning is embedded in social experience.

It can be argued that the constructivist theories do not take into consideration members of ethnic minority groups especially with regard to the globalisation of constructivism in relation to Islam.  This debate needs further research especially in the context of inner city minority ethnic ghettoisation in conjunction with western ideology (Bowers, 2004, Bowers, 2005).  However Constructivist learning theories do provide an opportunity for the development of pupils with learning disabilities and special educational needs especially in a vocational context (Tennant, 1997: 92 cited in Smith, 2001).

Constructivism is the foundation of PL where pupils build upon their experiences and apply them to the larger social constructs they belong.   In a report highlighting the managers’, teachers’ and learners’ perceptions of PL, pupils had a tendency to confuse PL with individualism questioning the amount of freedom to choose, quite probably in a bid to do less work.  In the same report teachers and senior management recognised the impact personalisation could have on pupil voice and autonomy.  However their main agenda for PL was the improved result of student tracking alongside pupil feedback (Underwood and Banyard, 2007).

One of the main features of the Microsoft Office SharePoint Server is the SharePoint Learning Kit (SLK) (which has been installed but not yet able to be implemented).  SLK is an e-learning tool compliant with the Shareable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) “developed by the US Department of Defence” (Friesen), which makes it easy to deliver course materials containing both basic and interactive resources and offers this support.

This method of delivery requires the construction of SCORM reusable LOs that can be shared over the LG and should “provide learners with a wide range of services to assist and facilitate knowledge construction” (Pan & Hawryszkiewycz, 2004).

Constructivist in theory, this environment moves away from the imposed Objectivist distribution of ‘one size fits all’ resources.  To ensure successful delivery and flexibility, with the collaboration of all faculty members, the scheme of work should be broken down into simple, cohesive LOs that contain a variety of “hypertext / hypermedia” (Kurzel et al) to enable PL.  The correct format should be selected to ensure effective delivery of the learning object whilst also being student centred, helping them stay focused.

Once the LO is uploaded onto the LG it can then be allocated to the relevant pupils.  This method allows the teacher to select the correct hypermedia for the individual based on their established profile meeting the PL agenda more effectively.

The SLK includes various web parts that can be introduced into the individual unit sites.  ‘My Assignments’ is one of those, where both the pupils and teachers can review the designated materials.

As pupils log onto a site they will see that they have been assigned a LO which will include the date set and the date needed for completion.  Pupils therefore will have strict deadlines highlighting when they need to hand work in which will make the collaboration between schools and caregivers easier as they can check the ‘My Assignments’ part of their child’s personal space, engage in their learning and ensure their child is working to the best of their ability.

As the LOs are delivered over Internet technologies, accessible through the LG and being platform independent “encourages learning anytime, anyplace, anywhere” offering the opportunity for pupils to catch up.

For the teacher, they can see who has started the LO and when it has been completed.  From there they can retrieve the LO and assess the work, feeding back to the pupil immediately, offering advice for areas they need to develop, using “Assessment that promotes learning” (Gilbert, 2006).  Student tracking is made easier by the LO being accessible by all staff who can review the assignment results and feedback which could enable earlier intervention for pupils who are not yet achieving at their potential.

 

Influenced by the Goal Tests (EDI) approach, I propose pupils begin a unit in the form of assessment to establish current knowledge, which will act as a baseline to measure progress.  Using SLK the assessment is allocated to the pupils who work through the task using the Internet technologies.  Once completed the LO is submitted and stored in the LG database where the teacher can retrieve it.  The work can be immediately marked and sent back to the pupil improving the feedback process, “to enable them to make learning choices”.

From the results both teacher and pupil can discuss the possible targets and goal settings and common specific areas can be identified and addressed.  As the school has a high percentage of disaffected pupils and special educational needs Maher (2006) found in his research paper regarding behavioural problems that there was a  “greater degree of goal attainment and satisfaction with counselling for pupils who participated in goal setting”.  This approach could ensure the development of PL, minimising behavioural issues and reducing disaffection.

To recognise all learners’ abilities the unit could be delivered in the following ‘game like’ levels,

  • Beginner
  • Intermediate
  • Expert

As pupils became more competent they could begin to self-assign modules, taking ownership of their learning by scaffolding on their experiences, allowing “the students to use particular content in different, albeit overlapping, contexts,” (Kurzel et al) developing autonomy and attainment.

When the unit has been completed, pupils will undergo a further assessment to review their progression and “attainment” (Ozga, 2003).  This will give clear indication of how the PL has impacted on teaching and learning, making tracking more effective.

 

Conclusion

Within this paper I have considered at a macro level the social implications of X and the surrounding BD3 community and the possible impact of ICT as a force for change.

Using the Social Constructivist approach through experiential learning, connecting social, cultural and moral experiences within learning I have highlighted how this could promote the development of pupil autonomy alongside community cohesion.  Cosio (1998) recognises the influence of institutions outlining the responsibility to condition the behavioural norms shared by society.  However this socialisation faces a series of obstacles and should be approached sensitively considering the predominance of the Muslim community who have developed their own social and cultural norms that do not fit within western ideology conversely Modood, T. & Ahmad(2007) quite poignantly states “ it is clear that there is much overlap between the two, with some creative tension and enough scope for dialogue and negotiation, contrary to the ‘clash of civilizations’ thesis”.

The concept and method of teaching is changing, shifting away from the didactic Objectivist transmission model to the more collaborative Constructivist facilitator, who manages learning by moving between groups, “helping, suggesting, encouraging and learning along with the learners”(Ntombovuyo, 2006).

Understanding that not only does the approach to the LG need to be readdressed but also the Behaviourist pedagogy needs to move forward to accommodate the DN learners with rich experiences akin to those outside the school environment.  I have offered ideas for faculties to collaborate more effectively using the technology.  The investment in technology requires the future intentions to be clearly defined to ensure the successful harnessing of its potential to enhance teaching and learning.  This will require teachers to rethink their methods of delivery and relearn how to use the technology innovatively, which will involve encouragement and investment.  However I predict a resistance to change considering some of the negative attitudes entrenched within the profession.

Retrospectively I believe the system should have been fully realised before its launch.  This would have minimised error and the distrust that staff and students alike have began to feel towards the technology.

In conclusion, I have only scraped the surface of the future possibilities yet I firmly believe this approach could not only support social cohesion but also cross-curricular cohesion, the collaboration between departments and home environments developing into a whole community school policy which would require further research.

 

Appendixes

Report of the Teaching and Learning in 2020 Review Group

Together, schools, local and national government need to work towards a society in which:

  • a child’s chances of success are not related to his or her socio-economic background, gender or ethnicity
  • education services are designed around the needs of each child, with the expectation that all learners achieve high standards
  • all children and young people leave school with functional skills in English and mathematics, understanding how to learn, think creatively, take risks and handle change
  • teachers use their skills and knowledge to engage children and young people as partners in learning, acting quickly to adjust their teaching in response to pupils’ learning2
  • schools draw in parents as their child’s co-educators, engaging them and increasing their capacity to support their child’s learning.

We believe that personalising learning and teaching must play a central role in transforming England’s education service to achieve these aims between now and 2020.

 

J. Underwood and P. Banyard

Personalisation: a political aspiration

The political aspiration for personalisation is that it will be a strategy for ensuring over time that:

  • · every pupil experiences success appropriate to their age and ability;
  • · all pupils are engaged and excited by learning;
  • · every pupil will have high aspirations for their work;
  • · every pupil feels supported in making progress;
  • · pupils know that they are valued;
  • · parents know that their child is valued.

Personalisation: objectives for education

As applied to schools this will offer learning which:

  • · reflects the most appropriate ways of learning;
  • · takes account of any past performance or prior learning;
  • · is presented in a way which is engaging and effective for that individual;
  • · encourages learning anytime, anyplace, anywhere;
  • · facilitates more ways to learn;
  • · recognises the learner’s short-term needs and longer term aspirations;
  • · encourages the learner to reflect on and self-regulate their learning;
  • · helps the learner to achieve recognition for their achievements that enables them to progress within the wider community.

Personalisation: a set of operational measures

Our experts agreed that personalisation can be observed in schools when they carry out some or all of the following activities:

  • agree targets with pupils;
  • help pupils to understand their own learning;
  • give pupils appropriate responsibility for their own learning;
  • allow the learner voice to be heard;
  • relate learning to pupils’ out-of-school experience;
  • relate learning to contexts unfamiliar to pupils;
  • provide ‘enrichment’ activities beyond the core curriculum;
  • give appropriate feedback to pupils to enable them to make learning choices;
  • are flexible in the way teachers present the curriculum in order to meet pupils’ individual needs;
  • get to know their pupils well as individuals;
  • offer their pupils pastoral care;
  • accommodate pupils’ individual learning needs appropriate to their age and ability.

“The five-stage model of online learning” by Gilly Salmon

 

 

 


Community Cohesion Framework 2007 – 2010

A cohesive community is defined as a place where:

  • There is a common vision and a sense of belonging to the local community;
  • The diversity of people’s backgrounds and circumstances are appreciated;
  • Those from different backgrounds have equal opportunities; and
  • Strong and positive relationships have been developed between people from different backgrounds in the workplace, in schools and in neighbourhoods.

 

References and Further Reading

 

About My Site – SharePoint Server – Microsoft Office Online. Available at: http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/sharepointserver/HA011605561033.aspx [Accessed April 9, 2009].

BradfordInfo.com by Bradford MDC. Table:- KS06 – Ethnic Origin – Asian or Asian British Pakistani . Available at: http://www.bradfordinfo.com/census/CensusCharts/cenchartres.cfm [Accessed April 5, 2009].

BradfordInfo.com by Bradford MDC. Available at: http://www.bradfordinfo.com/census/CensusCharts/centable.cfm [Accessed April 5, 2009].

BradfordInfo.com by Bradford MDC. Table:- KS06 – Ethnic Origin. Available at: http://www.bradfordinfo.com/census/CensusCharts/centable.cfm [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Chalkface » 2004» January. Available at: http://www.chalkface.com/blog/?m=200401 [Accessed April 1, 2009].

Community Cohesion Framework 2007 – 2010. Available at: http://www.hillingdon.gov.uk/media/pdf/6/m/cohesionframework.pdf [Accessed April 11, 2009].

Communities of Practice (Lave and Wenger) at Learning Theories. Available at: http://www.learning-theories.com/communities-of-practice-lave-and-wenger.html#more-36 [Accessed January 25, 2009].

(2006) Education and Inspections Bill. Commission for Race Equality. Available at: http://chinesesex.herechina.net/sitearchive/cre/Default.aspx.LocID-0hgnew0h9.RefLocID-0hg00900f006.Lang-EN.htm [Accessed April 4, 2009].

(2007) EXECUTIVE NEWS. Available at: http://www.teachers.org.uk/resources/word/ExecNews133.doc [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Islam – History of Islamic Education, Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education. Available at: http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2133/Islam.html [Accessed April 7, 2009].

Islamic-World.Net: Learning-Based Personality Theory. Available at: http://www.islamic-world.net/papers/persthry.doc [Accessed April 7, 2009].

Learngevity – Gagne and “E” Learning. Available at: http://www.learngevity.com/content/view/10/11/ [Accessed April 1, 2009].

LETSI Blog – Social and Experiential Learning. Available at: https://letsi.org/index.php?option=com_wordpress&p=52&Itemid=91 [Accessed April 1, 2009].

Listen up: hearing what students have to say about learning. Available at: http://www.teachingexpertise.com/articles/listen-up-hearing-what-students-have-to-say-about-learning-1036 [Accessed April 5, 2009].

(2008) Microsoft SharePoint Learning Kit. Available at: http://www.microsoft.com/education/slk.mspx [Accessed April 6, 2009].

REGEN 2000 Website. Available at: http://www.regen2000.com/ [Accessed April 4, 2009].

School Websites, Podcasting, Learning Platforms, Moodle: Moodle and the Personalised Learning Agenda. Available at: http://school-web-pages.blogspot.com/2007/03/moodle-and-personalised-learning-agenda.html [Accessed April 3, 2009].

Taxonomy HTML Create – eLearning Learning. Available at: http://www.elearninglearning.com/create/html/taxonomy/ [Accessed April 1, 2009].

TECHNOS. Available at: http://www.ait.net/technos/e-zine/tech_notes/learning_from_video.php [Accessed April 3, 2009].

Akdemir, O. & Koszalka, T.A. (2008) Investigating the relationships among instructional strategies and learning styles in online environments. Computers & Education, 50 (4), pp.1451-1461. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VCJ-4NBXVD5-1/2/9d33a66139e24ea130c8eb05bc8b9756.

Barnados Young People of Pakistani Origin and their Families. A Good Practice Guide . Available at: http://www.barnardos.org.uk/summprof.pdf [Accessed April 12, 2009].

Belshaw, D. 5 ways teachers can use educational technology to engage students at teaching.mrbelshaw.co.uk. Available at: http://teaching.mrbelshaw.co.uk/index.php/2007/05/04/5-ways-teachers-can-use-educational-technology-to-engage-students/ [Accessed January 2, 2009].

Bennett, R. & Gabriel, H. (1999) Headteacher characteristics, management style and attitudes towards the acceptance of commercial sponsorship by state-funded schools. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, pp.41–52.

Birbili, M. (2005) Constants and Contexts in Pupil Experience of Schooling in England, France and Denmark. European Educational Research Journal, 4 (3).

Bowers, C.A. (2005) 1 Title: Is Transformative Learning the Trojan Horse of Western Globalization? Available at: http://www.cabowers.net/pdf/Transformative%20theorist-Commons.pdf [Accessed April 7, 2009].

Bowers, C.A. (2004) False Promises of Constructivist Theories of Learning: A Global and Ecological Critique. Available at: http://web.pdx.edu/~pdx01401/books%20in%20press.doc [Accessed April 7, 2009].

Bradbrook, G., Imran Alvi, Fisher, J., Lloyd, H., Moore, R., Thompson, V., Brake, D. & Helsper, E. (2007) Meeting their potential: the role of education and technology in overcoming disadvantage and disaffection in young people . ,  (A review of literature, policy and practice commissioned by Becta in 2007). Available at: http://partners.becta.org.uk/upload-dir/downloads/page_documents/research/meeting_their_potential.doc [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Bradford Economic Partnership (2008) Regen 2000 | Bradford Economy. Available at: http://www.bradfordeconomy.co.uk/projects/people/regen_2000 [Accessed April 4, 2009].

Bradford Economy (2009) Current Population | Bradford Economy. Available at: http://bradfordeconomy.com/facts_and_figures/people/current_population [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Byles, T. (2007) Building Schools for the Future: Progress Update. Available at: http://www.partnershipsforschools.org.uk/documents/Press_Releases/TB_5AnnualEducationPartnershipsConf_250407.doc [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Cattrell, V., Dawkins, E. & Dawson, L. The Critical Skills Programme. Bradford Critical Skills Programme. Available at: http://vle.challenge.ngfl.ac.uk/pages/FOV1-000190FE/Bradford%20CS%20Statement%20of%20Intent.doc?FCItemID=S002F90E8 [Accessed April 11, 2009].

CEDERMAN, L. & DAASE, C. (2003) Endogenizing Corporate Identities: the Next Step in Constructivist IR Theory. European Journal of International Relations, 9 (1), pp.5-35. Available at: http://ejt.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/9/1/5.

Chattoo, S., Atkin, K. & McNeish, D. (2004) Young People of Pakistani Origin and their Families: implications for providing support to young people and their families, University of Leeds. Available at: http://www.barnardos.org.uk/finalreport.pdf [Accessed April 12, 2009].

Cleora D’Arcy, Darin Eastburn & Bertram Bruce  How Media Ecologies can Address Diverse Student Needs. College Teaching, 57 (1), pp.56-63.

Cole , P. & Wellington, J. (200) Conducting Evaluation and Research with and for ‘Disaffected’ Students: Practical and Methodological Issue, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0952-3383.2004.00336.

Concentrix CRM Case Study: Education Development International
. Available at: http://concentrix.co.uk/downloads/CRM%20Case%20Study%20-%20EDI.pdf [Accessed April 5, 2009].

COOK, L. (200) School without walls: reconnecting the disconnected at 14, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0268-2141.2005.00367.

Cosío, R.G.G.Á. (1998) Social constructivism and capacity building for environmental governance. International Planning Studies, 3 (3), pp.367 – 389. Available at: http://www.informaworld.com/10.1080/13563479808721720.

Crace, J. (2007) Why Warwick stopped running the gifted and talented programme | Education | The Guardian. The Guardian, p.1. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2007/aug/28/highereducation.schools [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Danzi, J., Smith , R. & Reul, K. (2008) Improving Student Motivation in Mixed Ability Classrooms Using Differentiated Instruction. Available at: www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/3d/4e/f0.pdf [Accessed February 18, 2009].

Dunn, Rita, Andrea Honigsfeld, Laura Doolan, Lena Bostrom, Karen Russo, Marjorie Schiering, Bernadyn Suh & Henry Tenedero  (2009) Impact of Learning-Style Instructional Strategies on Students’ Achievement and Attitudes: Perceptions of Educators in Diverse Institutions. The Clearing House, 82 (3), pp.135-140. Available at: http://ejournals.ebsco.com/direct.asp?ArticleID=487F87ED7D9435FC771D.

EdAction (2001) From the classroom to the courtroom; constructivism, fully grown. Available at: http://www.edaction.org/2001/update64.htm [Accessed April 7, 2009].

EDI Goal online assesment from EDI. Available at: http://www.goalonline.co.uk/ [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Education Development International EDI Accredited Qualifications, Available at: http://www.lccieb.com/Web/lccieb/docs/EDI%20Accreditation%20and%20Recognition%20v6.pdf [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Facer, K. (2006) 2020 and beyond : Future scenarios for education in the age of new technologies. In  Futurelab. Available at: www.futurelab.org.uk/openingeducation

Fie, M. E-Learning pedagogy: TSOI© Model. Available at: http://www.digitallearning.in/april06/e_learning.asp [Accessed April 1, 2009].

Finnigan, K.S. (2007) Charter School Autonomy: The Mismatch Between Theory and Practice. Educational Policy, 21 (3), pp.503-526. Available at: http://epx.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/21/3/503.

Frank Kurzel & Slay, J. (2000) Towards a Personalised Learning Environment. Available at: http://ausweb.scu.edu.au/aw03/papers/kurzel/paper.html [Accessed April 3, 2009].

Freitas, S.D. & Neumann, T. (2009) The use of [`]exploratory learning’ for supporting immersive learning in virtual environments. Computers & Education, 52 (2), pp.343-352. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VCJ-4TVY5BD-1/2/9cab19bcf19e34cbc521dd5662655327.

Friesen, N. Norm Friesen. Available at: http://www.learningspaces.org/n/ [Accessed April 1, 2009].

Friesen, N. Updates on ISO Standardization of E-Learning Technology  . Updates on ISO Standardization of E-Learning Technology  . Available at: http://www.learningspaces.org/n/node/23 [Accessed April 1, 2009].

Gawlik, M.A. (2007) Beyond the Charter Schoolhouse Door: Teacher-Perceived Autonomy. Education and Urban Society, 39 (4), pp.524-553. Available at: http://eus.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/39/4/524.

Gilbert, C. (2006) 2020 Vision Report of the Teaching and Learning in 2020 Review Group. In  Department for Education and Skills. Available at: www.teachernet.gov.uk/publications

Giulio E. Lancioni, M.F.O. (199) Task instructions for persons with severe intellectual disability: reducing the number of instruction occasions after the acquisition phas, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-078X(199910/12)14:4<199::AID-BIN35>3.0.CO;2-.

Goodchild, S. & Leach, E. (2001) Ethnic divide starts in ‘segregated’ schools – UK Politics, UK – The Independent. Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/ethnic-divide-starts-in-segregated-schools-682186.html [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Groves, B. (1999) Standards for teaching and supporting learning in further
education in England and Wales. Further Education Development Agency, p.45.

GTC (2009) Personalised learning and minorities. Available at: http://www.gtce.org.uk/networks/reays/personalise/how_to/ [Accessed April 1, 2009].

Hanley, M. E-Learning Curve Blog: Constructivism Pt.4: Experiential learning theory. Available at: http://elearningcurve.blogspot.com/2008/01/constructivism-pt4-experiential.html [Accessed February 15, 2009].

Hanratty, B. (2005) The Pushkin Trust: experiential learning and children with special educational needs. Irish Educational Studies, 2005 (24), pp.2-3. Available at: http://hdl.handle.net/2428/6034.

Hanratty, B. THE-PUSHKIN-TRUST-EXPERIENTIAL-LEARNING-AND-CHILDREN-WITH-SPECIAL-EDUCATIONAL-NEEDS. Available at: http://biblioteca.universia.net/ficha.do?id=37805506 [Accessed April 1, 2009].

Hartley, D. (200) EDUCATION, MARKETS AND THE PEDAGOGY OF PERSONALISATIO, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8527.2008.00411.

Hee Jun Choi, S.D.J. (200) The effect of problem-based video instruction on learner satisfaction, comprehension and retention in college course, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00676.

House of Commons (2007) House of Commons
Education and Skills Committee Citizenship Education: Second Report of Session 2006–07
, London: The Stationery Office Limited. Available at: www.parliament.the-stationery-office.com/pa/cm200607/cmselect/cmeduski/147/147.pdf  [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Jeffrey Goldman (2009) Using Gagne’s 9 Events of Learning in e-Learning | MinuteBio. Using Gagne’s 9 Events of Learning in e-Learning. Available at: http://minutebio.com/blog/?p=412 [Accessed April 1, 2009].

John Lettice (2005) MS UK locks in schools via ‘special terms’ sponsorship deal • Channel Register. Available at: http://www.channelregister.co.uk/2005/03/11/ms_specialist_schools_deal/ [Accessed April 4, 2009].

Kauppinen, A. 9. Constructivism in Ethics. Available at: http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~amk10/9c.ppt [Accessed April 7, 2009].

Keaty, K. Inquiry-oriented instruction throughout the elementary classroom. Available at: http://e-archive.vanderbilt.edu/bitstream/handle/1803/791/Keaty.Capstone.Mar4.doc?sequence=1 [Accessed April 3, 2009].

Koper , R. Reusing online resources: a … – Google Book Search. Available at: http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=NE09AAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA46&dq=transmission+model+pedagogical&ots=eBKYsJ106W&sig=syYYpqkvyYkgNQNdkViUnC6qVKg#PPA53,M1 [Accessed April 3, 2009].

Kurzel, F. & Slay, J. (2000) Towards a Personalised Learning Environment. Available at: http://ausweb.scu.edu.au/aw03/papers/kurzel/paper.html [Accessed April 3, 2009].

Lancioni, G.E. & O’Reilly, M.F. (199) Task instructions for persons with severe intellectual disability: reducing the number of instruction occasions after the acquisition phas, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-078X(199910/12)14:4<199::AID-BIN35>3.0.CO;2-.

Lane, C. Eight Years of Star Schools – Reflections. Available at: http://www.tecweb.org/vault/stars/reflect.html [Accessed April 3, 2009].

Lettice, J. (2005) MS UK locks in schools via ‘special terms’ sponsorship deal • Channel Register. Available at: http://www.channelregister.co.uk/2005/03/11/ms_specialist_schools_deal/ [Accessed April 4, 2009].

Lewis, D. (2001) Objectivism vs. Constructivism: The Origins of this Debate and the Implications for Instructional Designers. Development of Technology-Based Instruction. Available at: http://www.coedu.usf.edu/agents/dlewis/publications/Objectivism_vs_Constructivism.htm [Accessed April 7, 2009].

Lockyer, S. & South, J. (2006) Tackling inequalities through partnership working: the development of a neighbourhood project. Primary Health Care Research & Development, 7 (01), pp.50-59. Available at: http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=528420&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S1463423606000089.

MacLeod, F. (200) Towards inclusion — our shared responsibility for disaffected pupil, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8527.t01-1-0022.

Maher, C.A. (198) Effects of involving conduct problem adolescents in goal setting: An exploratory investigatio, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6807(198110)18:4<471::AID-PITS2310180418>3.0.CO;2-.

Markku Jahnukainen (2000) Jahnukainen – What’s special in special education? Former EBD students’ views on schooling – ISEC 2000. Available at: http://www.isec2000.org.uk/abstracts/papers_j/jahnukainen_1.htm [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Marsh, G.E., McFadden, A.C. & Price, B.J. (2003) Blended Instruction: Adapting Conventional Instruction for Large Classes. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 6 (4). Available at: http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter64/marsh64.htm [Accessed April 3, 2009].

Masters , A. 4 Ways to Engage Today’s Generation of Students. Available at: http://ezinearticles.com/?4-Ways-to-Engage-Todays-Generation-of-Students&id=1813993 [Accessed January 2, 2009].

Microsoft (2007) Microsoft Case Studies: President Kennedy Community School. School Empowers Teachers and Students with Self-Directed Technology Classes. Available at: http://www.microsoft.com/casestudies/casestudy.aspx?casestudyid=201478 [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Moallem, M. (2001) Applying Constructivist and Objectivist Learning Theories in the Design of A Web-Based Course: Implications for Practice. Educational Technology & Society, 4 (3). Available at: http://www.ifets.info/journals/4_3/moallem.html [Accessed April 6, 2009].

Modood, T. & Ahmad, F. (2007) British Muslim Perspectives on Multiculturalism. Theory Culture Society, 24 (2), pp.187-213. Available at: http://tcs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/24/2/187.

Mohanan, K.P. (2004) K P Mohanan: Social Constructivism and the Epistemology of Science. Available at: http://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/ellkpmoh/construct.htm [Accessed April 7, 2009].

Monty, A. (2005) A pedagogical model of elearning at KVL: “The five-stage model of online learning” by Gilly Salmon. Available at: http://www.itlc.life.ku.dk/it_paedagogik/elaerings_paedagogik/gilly.aspx [Accessed January 26, 2009].

Moule, P. (2007) Challenging the five-stage model for e-learning: a new approach. Research in Learning Technology, 15 (1), pp.37-50.

Murphy, E. (1997) Contructivist Learning Theory. Available at: http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~emurphy/stemnet/cle2b.html [Accessed April 8, 2009].

National Literacy Trust (2009) Enjoyment, confidence and reading: the keys for the success of writing in the 21 century. Available at: http://www.literacytrust.org.uk/policy/writingthefuture.pdf [Accessed April 9, 2009].

Nichols, M. (2003) A theory for eLearning. Available at: http://www.ifets.info/journals/6_2/1.html [Accessed April 8, 2009].

Ntombovuyo, K. (2006) An investigtion of the effective use of information and communication technologies (ICT) for Primary school teachers in the transfer of knowledge. Available at: http://sun.ac.za/jspui/bitstream/10019/236/2/Ntomb2.pdf.

Ozga, J. (2003) Measuring & Managing Performance in Education. ,  (27). Available at: www.ces.ed.ac.uk/PDF%20Files/Brief027.pdf [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Pan, W. & Hawryszkiewycz, I. (2004). A method of defining learning processes. In R. Atkinson, C. McBeath, D. Jonas-Dwyer & R. Phillips (Eds), Beyond the comfort zone: Proceedings of the 21st ASCILITE Conference (pp. 734-742). Perth, 5-8 December.  http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/perth04/procs/pan.html

Peacey, N. (2005) Towards Zero Exclusion Are all children special? Available at: http://www.ippr.org/uploadedFiles/research/projects/Education/towards%20zero%20exclusion-%20SEN%20paper(1).pdf [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Pear, S.D. (199) Excluded Pupils’ Views of Their Educational Needs and Experience, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9604.0000.

Prensky, M. (2001) Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. MCB University Press, 9 (5), p.6. Available at: http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf.

Ravenscroft, A. (200) Social software, Web 2.0 and learning: status and implications of an evolving paradig, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00308.

SecEd Preparing for the future: Secondary curriculum review explained. Available at: http://www.sec-ed.co.uk/public/downloads/supp-scre.pdf [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Selwyn, N. (2008) Constructing the challenge of digital didactics: seminar.net, 4 (3). Available at: http://www.seminar.net/current-issue/constructing-the-challenge-of-digital-didactics-the-rhetoric-remediation-and-realities-of-the-uk-d [Accessed April 1, 2009].

Shoikova, E.D., Ivanova, M.S. & Peshev, A.T. (2007) SHAREPOINT SERVER 2007 DEPLOYMENT FOR ELECTRONICS EDUCATION. ELECTRONICS’ 2007. Available at: http://ecad.tu-sofia.bg/et/2007/ET2007%20Book1/Education%20in%20Electronics/155-Paper-M_Ivanova1.pdf.

Shyu, H.C. (200) Using video-based anchored instruction to enhance learning: Taiwan’s experienc, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8535.0013.

Smith , M.K. (2001) David A. Kolb on experiential learning. the encyclopedia of informal education. Available at: http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-explrn.htm [Accessed February 15, 2009].

Smith , M.K. (1999) reflection @ the informal education homepage. reflection. Available at: http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-reflect.htm [Accessed February 15, 2009].

Tam, M. (1999) Constructivism: Implications for Teaching and Learning. Available at: http://www.ln.edu.hk/tlc/learning_matters/11-99-1099.pdf [Accessed April 7, 2009].

Tigner-Räsänen, Mary. For the last 15 years there has been controversy about the teaching of mathematics in the. Available at: http://marylily.org/Math%20Literature%20Review.htm [Accessed April 3, 2009].

Tobin, K.G. The Practice of constructivism in … – Google Book Search. Available at: http://books.google.com/books?id=G3vS8M4w5YgC&pg=PA29&lpg=PA29&dq=constructivism+is+against+god&source=bl&ots=agR-qoCofB&sig=rRi_fTao06Q1AEbCeEJvw0dI6zA&hl=en&ei=7dzbSdPHH4OsjAeX4djCCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2#PPA32,M1 [Accessed April 7, 2009].

Torsten Janson (1998) Muslim meaning maintenance: Problematizations of Islamic value reconstruction in a globalized setting. In The fourth Nordic conference on Middle Eastern Studies: .  Oslo. Available at: http://www.smi.uib.no/pao/janson.html [Accessed April 8, 2009].

Trentin, G. (200) Using a wiki to evaluate individual contribution to a collaborative learning projec, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00276.

Trinder, K., Guiller, J., Margaryan, A., Littlejohn, A. & Nicol, D. (2008) Learning from digital natives: bridging formal and informal learning, Glasgow Caledonian University. [Accessed February 15, 2008].

Twigg, S. (2004) Working together: Giving children and young people a say. Available at: http://www.connexions-leics.org/ns/pdc/docs_pdfs/Involving%20young%20people/Working%20together%20-%20Guidance.doc [Accessed April 5, 2009].

Underwood, J. & Banyard, P. (2008) Managers’, teachers’ and learners’ perceptions of personalised learning: evidence from Impact 2007. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 17 (3), pp.233 – 246. Available at: http://www.informaworld.com/10.1080/14759390802383850

Verkuyten, M. (200) Social Psychology and Multiculturalis, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00011.

WebAnywhere (2007) School Websites, Podcasting, Learning Platforms, Moodle: Moodle and the Personalised Learning Agenda. Available at: http://school-web-pages.blogspot.com/2007/03/moodle-and-personalised-learning-agenda.html [Accessed April 3, 2009].

Wenger, E. Communities of practice. Available at: http://www.ewenger.com/theory/ [Accessed February 15, 2009].

West-Burnham, J. (1997) Leadership for Learning: reengineering `mind sets’ . School Leadership & Management, 17 (2).

William S. Harwood, M.M.M. (199) Effects of integrated video media on student achievement and attitudes in high school chemistr, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199708)34:6<617::AID-TEA5>3.0.CO;2-.

Wilson, W.S. (2007) Capitalist Construction – William Smith Wilson. Available at: http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/endconstruction/diatonic [Accessed April 8, 2009].

Multimedia and E-Learning

THE UNIVERSITY OF HUDDERSFIELD

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

MSc Multimedia and E-Learning

Podcasting

The initial meeting of the MSc Multimedia and E-Learning course began with introductions, combined with this, a task to discover what skills other members of the group could offer, developing a network of likeminded people who could offer support throughout the duration of the course.  This soon progressed into the first step of Gilly Salmon’s, constructivist, five stage model (Monty, 2005), which Moule (2007) describes as the “coherent model upon which to base online learning design in higher education” (Moule also discusses the limitations of this model and offers a more conceptual approach using the e-Learning Ladder which uses an instructivist approach initially, developing into constructivist, as one progresses up the ladder), whereby Liz, the course leader / e-moderator, set a task where small groups discussed a topic.  The topic was recorded using a microphone and the free audio editing software, Audacity, which has made creating mp3s and podcasts far easier and readily accessible.  This encouragement from the course leader helped the group to form on a different level, creating podcasts and digital artefacts, engaging the students with the technology that would help them develop not only their skills but e-learning itself as described through Experiential Learning “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p.41 cited in Boyatzis, 1999).  Motivation is essential during this initial constructivist approach especially when recording a discussion, to be uploaded onto the web, as the majority of people do not like to hear the sound of their own voice.  Understanding that this was to gage peoples views there can be a slight air of cautiousness when uploading material on the web where it is readily available for all to see and scrutinise however it does offer the opportunity to reflect.  This was particularly true in my experience of the task.  I was happy to discuss with my partner but not to record my voice, therefore it is essential to encourage and develop the motivation of the student not only with regards to the technology but also their initial engagement with the approach of the course.   My experience of this initial task highlights the problems with adopting Gilly Salmon’s five-stage model as Moule (2007: 39) quoting Lisewski and Joyce (2003) describes how the approach does not take into account individual learning styles owing to the rigid structure which seemingly undermines the ethos of e-learning.

I was initially dubious about the use of podcasts within the school sector, although mobile learning technologies are continuing to develop; the podcast has the ability to reach the student on the move.  While Apple coined the term podcast (Trinder, 2008), the technology is not exclusively Mac, or limited to mp3 players but also easily listened to on an adequately equipped mobile phone.  Working within an institution that has over 80% pupils with English as an additional language the podcast could be an invaluable tool to help develop language skills as well as communicating complex instructions or answering frequently asked questions (Amadan, 2006).  For some time now, language courses have been available in audio format, which seems natural to develop a personalised, student centred program whereby their individual needs are catered for to help personal and social development within the school community through the use of podcasting.

Wikis

Collaborating on the PBWiki set up for the MSc was incredibly challenging, as the task was to write a personal, descriptive paragraph, highlighting your interests and skills.  I particularly struggled here and as Monty states, e-moderators should, “try to avoid the ‘Post your first message here and say who you are’ type of message. It will frighten some of the participants”.

Wikis have become an integral part of the Web 2.0 boom, enabling the collaboration and sharing of electronic information and knowledge far more efficiently than the ‘old fashioned’ way of email.

Glaser (Glaser, 2004) describes how Wikipedia has more than 340,000 articles, written by a sprawling online community and asks the question “If anyone can change the page at any time, how can you trust it?”  Although wikis are beneficial for the contributing student, it does seem hypocritical as wikis are generally frowned upon within academic circles and pupils are advised not to use them as a reference as the information lacks validity, yet they are becoming increasingly popular as a teaching and learning tool.

Groups are able to coordinate easier through the use of wikis (leelefever, 2007) although there can be issues when working in small groups, as the collaboration can sometimes be dependent on one member.  This became evident when developing a wiki / discussion group, focussing on Digital natives and digital immigrants, the phrase coined by Prensky (2001) who discusses the divisions between educators and students and how the education system does not cater for the net generation, a generation that has grown up with digital technology.  The use of the wiki did not evolve into a critical, academic artefact, but that of a social discussion, whereby the members discussed their personal thoughts and experiences.  This could owe to the previous concrete experiences of blogging software that have solid foundations in social networking on a personal level rather than academic.  Scaffolding as the word suggests needs to build on prior experience, and the concept was not fully realised by the students and although ideas were exchanged, knowledge was not necessarily acquired as no theoretical underpinning took place.  As the task was not assessed this could have had a negative impact on the development of the group and the final artefact.

Skype

Continuing with the “setting up of the system” course members created a Skype account and added each other as contacts.  Having been a Skype user for some years now, since its launch, although not utilising the software on a massive scale, I am however aware of its capabilities.  During my PGCE at University of Huddersfield, the lecturers wanted to experiment with remote classroom observations using the product, although I did not participate in this method I can see its potential of not being invasive like having stranger in the room, yet within the school sector this raises quite a few legal issues, transmitting live video of children across the web.  Alongside the legal implications of filming children there have arisen a few issues regarding the ethics of Skype.  Created by the founders of Kazaa, a peer-to-peer downloading application, “the No. 1 spyware threat on the Internet, according to Computer Associates International” (Ilet, 2004), countries such as China, Germany and Australia have reported that Skype conversations can be monitored or hacked into. Being closed source, meaning the code is unable to be modified, and claiming to be free to use, this is technically not free software.  There are however other free open source programs with similar specifications that offer greater privacy such as Ekiga, Twinkle and Wengophone (Ubuntu, 2009).

Initially I did wonder how this social networking tool could actually be implemented in ICT, within the school sector, and thought hard about its relevance within my subject specialism.  With great consideration, I began to think about how the social software could be used within other subjects.  Considering Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger’s Communities of Practice (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2009; Wenger, 2009), using Skype within the domain of Modern Foreign Languages (Wolff, 2006), pupils could call native speakers in other countries; this approach would have mutual benefits for both parties, where information and ideas are exchanged between the practitioners of the foreign tongue, forming relationships within other countries.  Using this application in a formal setting the teacher becomes the facilitator where the students learn by applying the technology within the classroom setting, impacting on teaching and learning through a process of engaging and purposeful relationships based on the interaction between the online community.

Similarly a more visual approach could be considered implementing Skype within Geography.  As previously discussed, Skype has video capability, offering pupils the opportunity to see first hand how other schools across the globe live and learn.

Hot Potatoes

Another technology that was introduced was Hot Potatoes, which allows “you to create interactive multiple-choice, short-answer, jumbled-sentence, crossword, matching/ordering and gap-fill exercises for the World Wide Web”.  Being an avid Flash user I found this piece of software quite unintuitive although it has great potential for non-Flash users.  I did however discover that the publishing settings would allow the results to be emailed to a chosen address.  This spurred me on to research whether Flash could do the same with such ease and have discovered the benefits of SCORM packages and how Flash quizzes integrate within them.

Elluminate

Mon, Dec 08, 2008 — Recording of Elluminate session Monday 8th December 20.15

I did not participate in this session; I have however, reviewed the recording and evaluated its impact on e-learning.  The initial setting of the Elluminate session involved the majority of people asking if they could be heard resulting in a communication problem, as people were not answering when they could clearly hear.

Referring back to Salmon’s five-stage model, students are again on Stage 1, as they are being introduced to a new technology.  This for some quickly developed as they reach Stage 2, Socialisation, where the online community of the MSc is contained in one place within the Elluminate session.  This shared space provided an opportunity for collaboration, becoming a Community of Practice, which should have progressed onto Stage 3.  In the beginning this however did not happen, as the structure of the session was not well paced and resources such as web pages did not work as intended, creating large gaps with no action, leaving users wondering if the technology had stopped working.  Because stage 1 had not been resolved, teething issues occurred, as users could not use the technology.  The session created a series of mixed messages whereby users were introduced to the initial voting technology as a “bit of fun”, however the application uses instant messaging, like AIM, and users were engaging in less formal online chat as no official rules had been put in place therefore Netiquette was not established.

The quality of the sound from the Moderator, Liz, was not very good and slightly low in volume, this required users to listen more attentively and could have been a strategy to ensure users paid attention.

As the session progressed, ideas were exchanged and for some time Stage 3 was acquired and knowledge shared clearly this shows the development of the group through the eventual familiarity of the software and the instruction from the e-moderator although the session seemed to end abruptly

Ning

Ning, another blog / wiki tool was introduced to the group.  Joining this and visiting it further there seems to be people who have become members of the site who have posted items related to Hoodia, a slimming aid, and Xanax, which is clearly not the site’s intended purpose.  As requests have to be made to join the group, it would seem that the e-moderator has not been vigilant in their selection, (an essential part of developing a community) vetting who becomes a member and what gets posted on the communal site to ensure that effective sharing of information remains the intended purpose rather than a spam area.  The communal area has given legitimate members the opportunity to share information, clearly forming Stage 3 of Salmon’s model where the community members have begun to share information, helping each other through the recommendation of resources.  The community is now well under way in progressing to the next level, Stage 4 – Knowledge construction.  Stage 5 – Development has yet to be reached.

Learning Journal

The learning journal is a demanding piece of writing, as it requires honest, personal reflection on the learning that has taken place.  Kolb alongside Roger Fry created the 4-stage Experiential Learning Model, which is broken down into the following categories

  1. Concrete experience
  2. Observation and reflection
  3. Forming abstract concepts
  4. Testing in new situations

This model has further been broken down into four learning styles, which can be applied as a constant spiral

Kolb and Fry on learning styles (Tennant, 1996 cited in Smith, 2001)

Learning style

 

Learning characteristic Description
Converger Abstract conceptualization + active experimentation ·    strong in practical application of ideas

·    can focus on hypo-deductive reasoning on specific problems

·    unemotional

·    has narrow interests

 

Diverger Concrete experience + reflective observation ·    strong in imaginative ability

·    good at generating ideas and seeing things from different perspectives

·    interested in people

·    broad cultural interests

 

Assimilator Abstract conceptualization + reflective observation ·    strong ability to create theoretical models excels in inductive reasoning

·    concerned with abstract concepts rather than people

 

Accommodator Concrete experience + active experimentation ·    greatest strength is doing things

·    more of a risk taker

·    performs well when required to react to immediate circumstances

·    solves problems intuitively

 

Smith (2001) deconstructs Kolb’s learning styles, critiquing the weakness in the results owing to the limited amount of studies, highlighting issues regarding his theories and how care needs to be taken when approaching.  He describes how initially the model successfully assists in the planning of activities and how actively engaged the learner is although it does not offer enough contemplation or reflection.   Reflection is an essential area where people can connect with their feelings and address emotion (Smith, 1999).  Smith (2001) continues to describe how the learning styles do not apply to all situations as memorisation and information assimilation could be more appropriate to different situations, the sequences of the stages are not necessarily in a logical order and as individuals should not limit themselves to one learning style hindering their development, which again returns to the concept of reflection.  Jarvis’s (1994, 1995 cited in Smith, 2001) experiential model considers different pathways realising that different processes can take place at the same time creating alternative routes rather than the systematic spiral.  Cultural and social experiences are also not considered in Kolb’s model as it is based solely on western experience, this lack of consideration will clearly be an issue if considered in the institution I work which has over 80% of pupils from ethnic minority backgrounds.  The model however “provides an excellent framework for planning teaching and learning activities and it can be usefully employed as a guide for understanding learning difficulties, vocational counselling, academic advising and so on”(Tennant,1997: 92 cited in Smith,2001).

Considering the experiential learning model and styles associated, writing this learning journal has given me the opportunity to reflect on the concrete experiences that took place throughout each day school.  From this reflection I have been able to form abstract concepts, contemplating how the application of some of the concrete experiences could develop my teaching and impact on learning.  Using these modes as a foundation I aim to implement and test the established applications and theories, therefore completing Kolb’s 4-stage Experiential Learning Model (Hanley, 2008).

References and Further Reading

Amadan, K. (2006) Benefits of Podcasting for Educators. Available at: http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/5-17-2006-96434.asp [Accessed January 1, 2009].

A pedagogical model of elearning at KVL: “The five-stage model of online learning” by Gilly Salmon. Available at: http://www.itlc.life.ku.dk/it_paedagogik/elaerings_paedagogik/gilly.aspx [Accessed January 26, 2009].

Belshaw, D. 5 ways teachers can use educational technology to engage students at teaching.mrbelshaw.co.uk. Available at: http://teaching.mrbelshaw.co.uk/index.php/2007/05/04/5-ways-teachers-can-use-educational-technology-to-engage-students/ [Accessed January 2, 2009].

Benefits of Podcasting for Educators. Available at: http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/5-17-2006-96434.asp [Accessed January 1, 2009].

BioMed Central | Full text | Wikis, blogs and podcasts: a new generation of Web-based tools for virtual collaborative clinical practice and education. Available at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6920/6/41/ [Accessed January 1, 2009].

Boyatzis, R. E. Kolb, D. A. & Mainemelis, C. (2000) Experiential Learning Theory: Previous Research and New Directions. [Internet] IN: Sternberg, R. J. & Zhang, L. F. (Eds.). Perspectives on cognitive, learning, and thinking styles. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, Available from: http://www.learningfromexperience.com/images/uploads/experiential-learning-theory.pdf [Accessed 15 January 2009]

Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2009, January). Communities of Practice (Lave and Wenger) at Learning-Theories.com. Available at: http://www.learning-theories.com/communities-of-practice-lave-and-wenger.html [Accessed January 25, 2009].

BIONDI, P. & DESCLAUX, F. (1998) Silver Needle in the Skype. In  Suresnes, FRANCE: EADS Corporate Research Center, p.98. Available at: www.blackhat.com/presentations/bh-europe-06/bh-eu-06-biondi/bh-eu-06-biondi-up.pdf [Accessed January 25, 2009].

DICKMEIS, T. & BIHLER, P. (2005) E-Learning and VoIP?. In How Skype can revolutionize interactive E-Learning.  INSA de Lyon. Available at: www.bihler-online.de/mixed/pdf/voip_summary.pdf.

Eickmann, P. Kolb, A. & Kolb, D. A. (2004) Designing learning. [Internet] IN: R. J. Boland & F. Collopy (Eds.), Managing as designing (pp. 241-247). Stanford: Stanford University Press. Available from: http://www.learningfromexperience.com/images/uploads/Designing-Learning.pdf [Accessed 15 January 2009]

Fry, R. & Kolb, D. A. (1975) Toward an Applied Theory of Experiential Learning. IN: Theory of Group Processes. (Cooper, C. ed). New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc

Glaser, M. (2004) OJR article: Collaborative Conundrum: Do Wikis Have a Place in the Newsroom? Available at: http://www.ojr.org/ojr/glaser/1094678265.php [Accessed January 1, 2009].

Hanley, M. E-Learning Curve Blog: Constructivism Pt.4: Experiential learning theory. Available at: http://elearningcurve.blogspot.com/2008/01/constructivism-pt4-experiential.html [Accessed February 15, 2009].

Ilett , D. (2004) CA slaps spyware label on Kazaa – CNET News. Available at: http://news.cnet.com/CA-slaps-spyware-label-on-Kazaa/2100-1025_3-5467539.html [Accessed January 25, 2009].

Jarvis, P. (1994) ‘Learning’, ICE301 Lifelong Learning, Unit 1(1), London: YMCA George Williams College.

Jarvis, P. (1995) Adult and Continuing Education. Theory and practice 2e, London: Routledge.

Kanter, B. Beth’s Blog: How Nonprofits Can Use Social Media: skype. Skype Me! Double Edge Sword … Available at: http://beth.typepad.com/beths_blog/skype/ [Accessed January 25, 2009].

Kolb, D. A. (1976) The Learning Style Inventory: Technical Manual. Boston, Ma. TRG Hay/McBer.

Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Prentice Hall

leelefever (2007) Video: Wikis in Plain English | Common Craft – Explanations In Plain English, Available at: http://www.commoncraft.com/video-wikis-plain-english [Accessed January 1, 2009].

Masters , A. 4 Ways to Engage Today’s Generation of Students. Available at: http://ezinearticles.com/?4-Ways-to-Engage-Todays-Generation-of-Students&id=1813993 [Accessed January 2, 2009].

Monty, A. (2005) A pedagogical model of elearning at KVL: “The five-stage model of online learning” by Gilly Salmon. Available at: http://www.itlc.life.ku.dk/it_paedagogik/elaerings_paedagogik/gilly.aspx [Accessed January 26, 2009].

Moule, P. (2007) Challenging the five-stage model for e-learning: a new approach. Research in Learning Technology, 15 (1), pp.37-50.

Prensky, M. (2001) Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. MCB University Press, 9 (5), p.6. Available at: http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf

Smith, M. K. (2001) ‘David A. Kolb on experiential learning’, the encyclopedia of informal education, http://www.infed.org/b-explrn.htm. [Accessed January 15, 2009].

Smith , M.K. (1999) reflection @ the informal education homepage. reflection. Available at: http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-reflect.htm [Accessed January 15, 2009].

Tennant, M. (1997) Psychology and Adult Learning 2e, London: Routledge.

Trinder, K., Guiller, J., Margaryan, A., Littlejohn, A. & Nicol, D. (2008) Learning from digital natives: bridging formal and informal learning, Glasgow Caledonian University. Available at:  [Accessed January 15, 2009].

Ubuntu (2009) Skype. Skype – Community Ubuntu Documentation. Available at: https://help.ubuntu.com/community/Skype [Accessed January 25, 2009].

Wenger, E. Communities of practice. Available at: http://www.ewenger.com/theory/ [Accessed January 15, 2009].

Wolff , P. (2006) Skype and distance learning. Available at: www.toolsfortheclassroom.com/Skype%20and%20distance%20learning.doc

 

Intervention Study

Can instructional video develop autonomy in disaffected pupils?

Introduction

School X is a larger than average mixed comprehensive school for 1,402 students aged 11-18 of whom 309 are in the sixth form. The school is located approximately 1 mile outside the city centre. The area is recognised as having significant socio-economic deprivation with many students eligible for free school meals. Nearly all the students are from minority ethnic backgrounds and the majority speak English as an additional language. The students’ attainment on entry to the school is well below average and a higher than average numbers of students have learning difficulties and/or disabilities.  In September 2006 it acquired specialist college status for mathematics and computing, receiving Outstanding from OFSTED in 2007, em-blazing the slogan, “Achievement for all.”

With adequate resources and sponsored by Microsoft, the ICT department is staffed by seven specialist ICT teachers, the head of department / Key Stage 4 coordinator, Key Stage 5 coordinator, Key Stage 3 coordinator, the head of year ten and 3 NQTs.  Alongside these members are four full time technicians and a VLE administrator who is currently developing the Learning Gateway using Microsoft Sharepoint, although the Learning Kit has not yet been utilised.

The group of learners, 10ZIT1, a year 10 mixed group who have not opted to take ICT and therefore have only one hour a week, comprises of equal amounts of achievers and socially dysfunctional, disaffected pupils.  Behaviour is challenging within the classroom and the pupils’ use of ICT leads them only to games.  Classroom management is an issue, although the lack of a whole school behaviour policy could account for the entrenched inappropriate conduct across the school.  The school delivers OCR Nationals Level 2 ICT from year 9 onwards, whilst the class should have completed the mandatory Unit 1 during that year, the last four months have been spent trying to complete it, unsuccessfully.   The decision has been made to move onto Unit 20: Creating animation, a creative unit that will hopefully reengage the pupils into education and learning through creative thought.  As the disaffection has been ongoing, the pupils’ listening and speaking skills are somewhat underdeveloped; an area that needs to be targeted during the remainder of their schooling, their responsibility and sense of achievement also needs nurturing through which the instructor believes they could accomplish independently.  Their lack of concentration on instructor led demonstrations causes disruption, from which the whole class suffers.

Aims

The aim of the intervention is to develop a series of instructional videos that will teach the pupils how to use Flash to create an animated sequence.  As the pupils will be in control of the delivery of the video, they can work at their own pace and refer to the resources when needed whilst creating their project.  This feature of multi tasking will need to be taught initially although the instructor believes it will have great rewards, for both pupil development, autonomy and classroom management.

Autonomy

As this paper aims to uncover whether instructional video can improve autonomy in disaffected pupils it is essential to determine what is meant by the term autonomy.

Autonomy in schools is crucial to educational effectiveness.  Autonomy empowers individuals within the system to teach to the changing needs of the students and the community (Sergiovanni and Moore, 1985 cited in Dondero, 1997).

Freeman and Lewis (2000. 151) argue whether “autonomy includes the broader ability to control one’s destiny“.  This theory of self-determination involves not only the control of ones destiny but also self-governance an area that involves conforming to the expected social norms of behaviour.  Maclean (2005) describes autonomy as “acting in your interests while staying affiliated with the values of the organisation”.  However, the relationships between pupil and teacher within the classroom are built upon a constant power struggle whereby disaffection occurs as pupils engage in the natural form of resistance as part of their subculture.  This resistance could be interpreted as individual autonomy as they are being their own person and as Christman (2003) states “not the product of manipulative or distorting external forces”.   Conversely this behaviour is somewhat regarded as deviant owing to the underdeveloped communication skills which have a tendency to be confrontational, as foundation relationships at home are generally poor, especially in areas of low socio economic depravation leading to greater detachment and disaffection to the society they are required to become a part of.

The learning environment then again is a major contributing factor to the development of pupil autonomy.  The initial steps towards an autonomous classroom requires that the existing power struggle, dissipate, creating a climate where mutual power exists between both pupil and teacher to an appropriate degree.  Clear boundaries should be set although pupils must be given the opportunity to challenge these in a respectful way developing communication skills whereby the greater understanding of negotiating takes place, becoming a part of the decision making process.  As purposeful relationships develop within the supportive classroom, communication between both pupil and teacher should be as an equal, whereby mutual respect exists removing aggressive behaviour and disaffection.   In the same way as autonomy and self-determination develop so should independent thought and pupils should be encouraged to question confidently whilst taking their own initiative and personal responsibility for their actions and learning.  Dondero cites Meyers (1986) who “suggests that autonomous behaviour occurs in degrees (i.e. given certain situations, people will act more or less autonomously). To have the ability to act autonomously does not guarantee that the behaviour will occur; individuals will only act autonomously if the situation is appropriate to them”.  To ensure the success of the autonomous classroom, an educators approach must be from the pupils’ view to engage their interests passionately.

Methodology

“It is notoriously difficult to ‘measure impact’ in any educational innovation, whether it be a teaching method, a new teaching approach, a new curriculum scheme or indeed an intervention of any kind”. (Wellington and Cole, 2004, 101)

Research methods

To ensure development as a practitioner within the teaching profession it is essential to reflect on ones practice.  It is from this that the stakeholders, namely the students will be able to progress and attain from the cyclical reflection of the instructor.  This will in turn influence and improve teaching and learning.

McKernan states “Action research as a teacher-researcher movement, is at once an ideology which instructs us that practitioners can be producers as well as consumers of the curriculum inquiry;(…)”. McKernan continues to describe “action research has attempted to render the problematic social world understandable as well as to improve the quality of life in social settings”.

As a method of action research the instructor will use the Kolb model of experiential learning, a model that progresses over four stages which Kolb and Fry (1975, cited in Smith, 2001) argue that the learning cycle can begin at any one of the four modes but suggest that the optimal learning process begins at stage 1, ‘Concrete Experience’.  Here the learner observes a response from the immediate action or concrete experience.  It is from this then that the learner is able to reflect and progress onto stage two, ‘Observation and Reflection’.  Understanding the circumstances of the concrete experience the learner can anticipate the possible impact of a similar situation or action.  With this information the learner can then progress to step three, ‘Forming Abstract Concepts’, synthesising the experience “from which new implications for action can be drawn” (Boyatzis, Kolb & Mainemelis, 2006, p.3).  This then leads to the final stage of the model, step four, ‘Testing in new situations’ where application of the reflective concepts based on experience can be tested and new experiences drawn continuing the cycle.

Concrete Experience

The current educational climate within the classroom is not pleasant.  The battle between pupil and instructor is constant which has a detrimental effect on teaching and learning.  As the instructor attempts to engage pupils through modelling using the whiteboard from the front of the class, the reception of the students is unapparent considering behaviour and response.  The pupils were observed and the instructor made generic notes from lessons.  Using this as a baseline for “ordinary”, chalk and talk teaching it is necessary to reflect on this.

Observation and Reflection

From the results of the observations (see appendixes) it became apparent that these pupils were disengaged with ICT.  As the results show the majority of pupils were distracted and more preoccupied with their social status.

Emotional intelligence (Petrides et al, 2004) is seriously below average.  This is not only reflected by the pupils’ attainment on entry but the minimal progression throughout the year, which in turn influences the lack of control within the classroom (Vidal Rodeiro et al, 2009).  Combined with the inability to connect / apply, skills learned / taught to possible ideas, results in dependant pupils who appear to lack any drive or passion for anything other than their current social standing within their insular community.

There is no real desire to learn or in fact engage with ICT creatively, which hinders development and attainment.  They have no pride in their work based on the previously submitted assessments.

Discussing the state of the learning environment the instructor found the pupils did not enjoy sitting at the front watching the teacher modelling but preferred to log straight onto the computers and ‘get on’ with their work.  This indicated that the pupils could be receptive to autonomous learning.

Forming Abstract Concepts

Considering the pupils voice it seemed valid to diffuse the power struggle and the adult in the room should meet the pupils’ demands in order to move the learning environment forward.  Pupils in year 10 should be moving more and more toward independent thought with the ability to make decisions and face the consequences of their actions.

Testing in new situations

Establishing the classroom as an environment to achieve autonomous learning, the power struggle that existed during the initial stages was slowly dissipated to help build relationships.  Listening to the pupils’ voice, class members were not required to sit at the front and watch the teacher modelling, an area that caused the most disruption.  They were however required to come in, settle down, log on and open their animation and supporting document to evidence their work.  Clear boundaries had been set with regards to playing games, alongside, an agreement was set in place whereby pupils could have free time if they had made sufficient progress during the lesson.  This approach diminished the aggressive behaviour creating a more pleasant work environment improving “the quality of life in social settings”.  In spite of this the issue of mutual respect is still one of the main disrupting factors within the class is most pupils’ attitude towards homosexuality.  Defying the socially accepted norms within their society and to some degree that within dominant culture the instructor’s homosexual presence could be interpreted as a catalyst for non-conformist behaviour, spurring the pupils to partake in their rebellious subcultural norms.  On the other hand this could also represent the pupils’ lack of respect within the classroom (Rofes, 2000; Iftikhar, 2009; Teachers TV, 2008).  Speculating around these key issues does not necessarily resolve them and requires further research into Muslim pupils’ opinions of gay teachers.  Nevertheless from observation their behaviour is somewhat more deviant compared to that in a class where a ‘respected’ or ‘feared’ teacher is host, drawing a series of conclusions that is not necessarily debated.

Tapping in to their interests, quality visuals of aspiring material goods (Bentley, Clinique, Porsche) were delivered to engage the pupils and inspire them (Meyers, ibid).  These images were composited together to create animated sequences, which received an enthusiastic response, usually “Sir that’s sick man” (Sick meaning: great; COOL, AWESOME according to The Online Slang Dictionary).  The assets were distributed amongst the class, ensuring there was sufficient choice for them to make decisions of what they would create.

The final inspirational solutions were not only played full screen on the whiteboard but also accessible from the Learning Gateway.  Alongside these a series of quality instructional video resources were created to inspire pupils giving step-by-step instructions to help them create the final product.  Initially sceptical about dictating the final outcome, the drive to approach the topic in such a way was founded on the lack of vision pupils have, combined with experience of INSETs previously taken with staff who also had difficulty in realising the potential of basic instructional videos which taught you how to bounce a ball.   It was felt necessary to show what you could achieve with three very different pictures using very simple techniques.

Pupils were directed to the instructional videos and encouraged to work independently.  This new process of learning was alien to them, requiring self-control and motivation.  Only three pupils from the class accessed the material to help with their animation.  These pupils were constantly encouraged and reminded to access the resources however one respondent voiced, “They take too long”.  The realisation that they are in control of their learning was not apparent, causing disengagement with the material.  However the three pupils that did engage initially with the instructional resources were proactive using the software although they had no realisation of what and how they had achieved it.

Results

The antisocial, deviant behaviour was minimised over the first few weeks as relationships began to form however this deteriorated as the instructor had four consecutive weeks away from the group.  The positive environment built up again quite quickly with more class involvement as pupils were given the opportunity to demonstrate the learning objectives.

This helped to establish what had been learnt previously and as the group are quite social they were attentive to the modelling.  This allowed the instructor to combine pupil / teacher led demonstrations alongside the instructional videos more easily as talking during demonstration diminished.  Pupils were following instructions more readily, which made teaching and learning more effective.

Talking throughout work time did not diminish and stayed constant although the work ethic improved radically.  The talking may reduce as the unit progresses and they become more competent in Flash.

Playing games was still an issue with some pupils, although not near the amount at the beginning of the intervention as the free time agreement was effective.

Working on other assignments became a concern towards the end of the observations, as pupils were more conscious of current exams or coursework deadlines.  For non-option ICT groups such as this, the application of ICT makes more sense when applying it to something they are interested in, hence an opted subject.  Most pupils were enthusiastic towards the end, creatively engaged and on task although pride in their work was not equivalent.  Some pupils were not saving their work properly and having to start again.  Un-fazed by this there still seemed to be a lack of pride and engagement even though they were still on task.

Using instructional video was not apparent at all toward the end and had reached its peak a few weeks into the observation with a total of three pupils, which deems the technological intervention a failure.  However the classroom routines that were put into action did improve teaching and learning on some level.

Conclusion and recommendations

Learning from instructional video is a skill requiring continuous reinforcement.  Understanding the resources can be paused, rewound and fast-forwarded the same way when listening to music or watching a film is crucial.  Pupils should watch, then attempt, see if it works, if not go back to the resource and watch again or if successful move on.  This level of learning requires determination and self-control from which the pupils should feel empowerment realising they are acting in their best interests as well as those of the school resulting in autonomy.   This skill is possibly too advanced for a group of disaffected pupils and would require a longer period to teach self-control after positive relationships have been built.

As this action research project aimed to develop this level of learning, the data however is flawed and no real successes can be determined as the group dynamics were continuously changing.  This was due to a series of factors, namely disorganisation and reorganisation of pupils’ timetables, which caused a serious amount of disruption within an already disaffected class.  Over the weeks the observations took place several new pupils were added, taken away and some who seemed to be generally in the wrong classroom.

The technological intervention did not work as planned, however the routines put into place from the initial observations and reflection where the pupils’ voice was considered did begin to diminish disruptive behaviour.  Autonomy was not achieved, as finding things out for themselves was not an incentive, since they could not recognise the personal gain.  More frequently “Sir I need help” or “Sir you haven’t helped me” continued to be common phrases shouted out which suggests that most did want to engage with the software however they still required one to one support to ensure total engagement otherwise they would become disruptive and regress into the social mode they are accustomed to.

The scenarios reached some of the pupils’ current social awareness connecting them to the work, and one pupil adapted the brief to suit his personal interest of boxing.  Equally more discussion is needed to clearly identify the interests of disaffected youths to ensure that the topic is relevant to them and actively reengage them in the classroom.

To raise achievement and attainment within this area of compulsory none option ICT, more ‘social’ group work would make the subject accessible to improve not only their grades but also their Emotional Intelligence through the development of socialisation.  Autonomy is only the beginning of the journey in which the outcome should be to work towards a unanimous group goal and fit in with the social confines we are all subject to.  Collaborative group work could be the key for pupils to understand their own personal strengths and identify weaknesses to aid personal development.  Unit 23: Creating Video would be a more fitting area to bring together a variety of skills and personal qualities as it could be successfully divided into vocational hands on areas such as director, actor and editor.  This combination would allow individuality and independence to flourish.


References and Further Reading

The Online Slang Dictionary | Definition of sick. Available at: http://onlineslangdictionary.com/definition+of/sick [Accessed March 25, 2009].

Ali, Majid (2008) Perceptions of learning difficulties: a study examining the views of Pakistani and white children with learning difficulties, their parents, peers and school staff. EdD thesis, University of Huddersfield.

Christman, J. (2003) Autonomy in Moral and Political Philosophy. Autonomy in Moral and Political Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Available at: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/autonomy-moral/ [Accessed March 31, 2009].

Dondero, G.M. (1997) Organizational climate and teacher autonomy: implications for educational reform. International Journal of Educational Management, 11 (5). Available at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet?contentType=Article&Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/Articles/0600110504.html [Accessed March 31, 2009].

Fie, M. E-Learning pedagogy: TSOI© Model. Available at: http://www.digitallearning.in/april06/e_learning.asp [Accessed April 1, 2009].

Frederickson, N. & Petrides, K. (2008) Ethnic, gender, and socio-economic group differences in academic performance and secondary school selection: A longitudinal analysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 18 (2), pp.144-151. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W5P-4RTTJH3-1/2/0f7811abd78dea063d4a24e859481104.

Freeman, M.D.A. & Lewis, A.D.E. (2000) Law and Medicine: Current Legal Issues , New York: Oxford University Press. Available at: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lo5t2zqlzHoC&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=a+control+of+one%E2%80%99s+destiny+(autonomy)&source=bl&ots=EG9F-I343O&sig=gLmRmOd8ygt8geiBXZi3DkyazJA&hl=en&ei=Bw3SSeyaAsSOjAfcnJjvBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result [Accessed March 31, 2009].

Freitas, S.D. & Neumann, T. (2009) The use of [`]exploratory learning’ for supporting immersive learning in virtual environments. Computers & Education, 52 (2), pp.343-352. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VCJ-4TVY5BD-1/2/9cab19bcf19e34cbc521dd5662655327.

Hartley, D. (200) EDUCATION, MARKETS AND THE PEDAGOGY OF PERSONALISATION, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8527.2008.00411.

Huang, W. & Webster, D. (200) An intelligent semantic e-learning framework using context-aware Semantic Web technologie, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00610.

Iftikhar (2009) Pakistan Think Tank Forum • View topic – Gay and Lazbian Vs Muslim Children. Available at: http://www.pakistanthinktank.org/forums/viewtopic.php?f=39&t=763 [Accessed March 25, 2009].

Lamaster, K.J. & Knop, N. (2004) Improving web-based instruction: using action research to enhance distance learning instruction. Educational Action Research, 12 (3), pp.387 – 412. Available at: http://www.informaworld.com/10.1080/09650790400200257.

McKernan, J. Curriculum action research. Available at: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_oTDcLyj9pUC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=Curriculum+Action+Research&source=bl&ots=MPopDQjBz7&sig=48_vbczNJxnSecfsUn9IPNXbo-0&hl=en&ei=5eQaSuGRMaGsjAfukez9DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2#PPA3,M1 [Accessed March 25, 2009].

Passey, D., Williams, S. & Rogers, C. (2008) Assessing the potential of e-learning to support re-engagement amongst young people with Not in education, employment or training (NEET) status. In An independent research and evaluation study .  Lancaster: Lancaster University. Available at: http://partners.becta.org.uk/upload-dir/downloads/page_documents/research/elearning_reengagement_neet_background.doc [Accessed March 26, 2009].

Petrides, K.V., Frederickson, N. & Furnham, A. (2004) The role of trait emotional intelligence in academic performance and deviant behavior at school. Personality and Individual Differences, 36 (2), pp.277-293. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V9F-48761M2-F/2/38c0f87a6048cea5c4436cfa1759d539.

Phil Riding, Sue Fowell & Phil Levy (1995) An action research approach to curriculum development. Information Research, 1 (1). Available at: http://informationr.net/ir/1-1/paper2.html [Accessed March 25, 2009].

Rofes, E. (2000) Bound and Gagged: Sexual Silences, Gender Conformity and the Gay Male Teacher. Sexualities.

Selwyn, N. (2008) Constructing the challenge of digital didactics: seminar.net, 4 (3). Available at: http://www.seminar.net/current-issue/constructing-the-challenge-of-digital-didactics-the-rhetoric-remediation-and-realities-of-the-uk-d [Accessed April 1, 2009].

Smith , M.K. (2001) David A. Kolb on experiential learning. the encyclopedia of informal education. Available at: http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-explrn.htm [Accessed February 15, 2009].

Sunal, C. & Haas  , M. (2008) Development of Self-Concept in Diverse Students. Available at: http://www.education.com/reference/article/development-self-concept-diverse/ [Accessed March 26, 2009].

Teachers TV (2008) School Matters – Gay Teachers | Teachers TV. Available at: http://www.teachers.tv/video/26760 [Accessed March 25, 2009].

THE MUSLIM EDUCATIONAL TRUST (2001) Schools: Achieving Success,

Underwood, J. & Banyard, P. (2008) Managers’, teachers’ and learners’ perceptions of personalised learning: evidence from Impact 2007. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 17 (3), pp.233 – 246. Available at: http://www.informaworld.com/10.1080/14759390802383850.

Vidal Rodeiro, C.L., Bell, J.F. & Emery, J.L. (2009) Can trait Emotional Intelligence predict differences in attainment and progress in secondary school? Available at: http://www.cambridgeassessment.org.uk/ca/digitalAssets/176286_BPS_2009_Conference_Paper_-_Cambridge_Assessment_Final_Report__Can_trait_EI_predict_differences_in_attainment_and_progress_in_secondary_school.pdf [Accessed March 25, 2009].

Wehmeyer, M.L. Brief Paper on Personal, Family and Community Strategies to Enhance Consumer-Direction and Self-Determination. Available at: http://www.communitygateway.org/faq/selfdetermination.htm [Accessed March 31, 2009].

Weihong Huang, D.W. (200) An intelligent semantic e-learning framework using context-aware Semantic Web technologie, Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00610.

Wellington , J. & Cole, P. (2004) Conducting evaluation and research with and for ‘disaffected’ students: practical and methodological issues. British Journal of Special Education, 31 (2).

Researching Multimedia in Education

Introduction & Myths

Interest

After graduating with 1st class honours I was employed by Bradford School of Art to deliver technical aspects of software to students on the BA where my interest in teaching developed.  Continuing my professional development in the form of MA Graphic Design and then PGCE ICT I realised the impact of ICT within society.  Although generally the vision of ICT is usually that of spreadsheets and databases, my focus and interest is developing the more creative side of learning through design and project management, harnessing the available technologies, fusing them together, ensuring that ICT can integrate seamlessly.  Through this approach I aim to develop pupils’ knowledge and attitude towards ICT demonstrating how this essential part of modern society can enhance their lives.

Attitude

Learning technologies can improve teaching and learning, only if understanding exists from both pupil and teacher.  Problems usually arise when using technologies in the classroom, if it can go wrong it will go wrong and it is through the planning of using these LTs that a backup plan is usually necessary.

Currently the educational institution I teach within is developing their Intranet to promote excellence in teaching and improve learning, enabling “achievement for all.”  They implement Microsoft SharePoint, a corporate tool used by many leading brands, such as Easy Jet, and being a Microsoft product is not necessarily the most intuitive piece of software as it is not user friendly.  The development of the intranet is in its infancy and the school employs a single person to work full time on its development.  Throughout the next year I aim to improve the interface of the Learning Gateway (intranet) creating a more ergonomic experience, incorporating more assessment for learning through the creation of online activities, which will offer the pupils an immediate response also improving assessment and feedback from tutors.

The submission of work is an area I would like to develop as the handing in of Key Stage 3 and4 finished projects does not always go to plan as pupils have a limit to printing 2 pages at a time.  Sixth form pupils send work by email and as effective as this is, I believe it to be slightly inefficient and informal.  Over the past few weeks I have been looking at creating work areas and document libraries where a class of students can upload work.  This currently has its drawbacks as the security permissions are limited, as those who are allowed to upload, are also allowed to read, edit and delete other pupils’ work, which creates a series of security issues.

Another aspect I aim to undertake is building the social side of the Learning Gateway so that pupils can contribute through social networking tools such as blogs and wikis, helping them to develop their own online persona and bring the school together as a community helping departments to collaborate effectively improving cross curricular activities where pupils will be able to make more intuitive connections through their studies promoting a more fluid cohesive educational experience.  This should enable pupils to effectively share and exchange ideas, a key part within the curriculum.

E-mail

E-mail

E-mail is an integral means of communication within the education establishment, allowing collaboration between staff, enabling distance teaching and learning whilst giving the learner an easy alternative for making queries regarding current issues.

New pupils joining secondary education at year 7 may well be new to the communication theories behind email.  As the digital natives are encompassed within the notion that all have a similar access to technology, the reality is that some may not have Internet access or aware of the opportunities to set up personal email.  As described email is an integral part of communication within education, it is then essential to set up this service for each pupil.  Introducing email to pupils will help to develop key skills as Lerman (1998) describes such as “speak, listen, read, and write for purposes that seem meaningful to them” Transferring the FENTOs (Groves, 1999) key areas of teaching, implementing the use of email creatively within the classroom, the teacher is able to “promote and encourage individual learning”, helping pupils to determine a greater sense of autonomy, as they are able to offer support and advice to their peers.  Sharing and exchanging information with each other is a key skill that should be developed to achieve a level three although there are difficulties evidencing this and using email could develop this key issue.

To introduce the task, pupils are divided into groups of four and set a research project where they have to collaborate together to produce a travel package report, including mode of travel, hotel, performance and restaurant reservations.  Each pupil undertakes one of the research criteria, uncovering the important information using appropriate search methods.  Relevant pictures associated with each criterion are downloaded and saved to their personal space, suitable text is copied and pasted into an email along with the hyperlinks, acknowledging their sources, the images then attached.  This information is shared amongst the group electronically through the use of their email, transferring relevant data and images to each other without the use of verbal communication or transporting files through USB sticks, keeping pupils in their seats.  During the lesson, pupils communicate only through email, which should promote a positive work environment ensuring behaviour, and classroom management is of minimum effort as the teacher will be able to “facilitate learning in groups” more effectively.  Using the email client the pupils should learn how to set up group communication, from this the pupils should be able to attach files, select information and choose recipients.

Using the acquired shared information the pupils then produce a promotional report recommending their package deal aimed at a mature audience, this is then attached and emailed to the whole class.  Evidence is then easily obtained regarding sharing information and ideas in an effective manner whereby the pupils have learned from experience by sending and receiving emails, to and from multiple users, developing research, writing and general ICT skills.

Interactive Whiteboards

Interactive Whiteboards

Click here to open PowerPoint

Interactive whiteboards are rarely used for anything other than demonstrations, presentations or the displaying of lesson objectives.  Once delivered the whiteboard is then relatively redundant as the teacher works their way around the room, the screensaver activates and generally the “Windows XP” logo floats around.  The aim of my PowerPoint is to make use of the whiteboard whilst the teacher is not there.  The lesson is developed for OCR Nationals Level 2 ICT, Unit 21, AO3, and would aim to get all pupils to a Distinction grade.  The tutor would initially explain the objectives, demonstrate the task in approximately 10 minutes and then move onto the next slide.  This slide contains a pre-recorded demonstration accompanied by a written description of what to do.  This approach would help the pupils to develop their own sense of autonomy as the tutor can only be in one place at once.  To accompany the video a Word document containing step by step instructions to aid understanding.

 

ePortfolios

ePortfolios

The Sun (2008) in their article “ePortfolios in Education: The Time Is Now” claim that ePortfolios are here today and in great use yet, Tolley (2009) in his thesis, discusses the ongoing discourse regarding universal eportfolios, and states that “only 5% of the population uses an ePortfolio 5% of the time.”  However ePortfolios and emerging technologies are constantly being developed and tested yet as Rogers et al (2006) suggest “the implementation seems to be limited at this time.”

There will however be a significant emergence of ePortfolios over the next five years as it is expected that each child should possess an online portfolio as part of one of the government’s key objectives (Spider, 2008).  This development of key skills will prepare the child for further study or future employment, making a positive contribution to society.  Although here lays the debate, what is an ePortfolio comprised of?  Since the emergence of Web 2.0 technologies and the boom of social networking, digital artefacts are being constantly created, dotted around the web in the form of images, videos, blogs, wikis and tagging.  These artefacts combine to build a progressive picture of the online users “social” development that as Vuorikari (2005) suggests, “could be combined to create an ePortfolio utilising learning progresses through the ability to organise one’s own knowledge.”  This skill will enable pupils to make connections between their works and reflect on their progress, yet there are many issues regarding the implications of social networking within the school sector (which appear later in this paper), and the employment sector where it has been known that employers use social networking sites to keep tabs on their employees or decisions regarding employment (SmartPros, 2006).

Developing an ePortfolio within the school sector relies on the education and understanding of new skills, which are required for the constant, reflective process that takes place in building this lifelong artefact, a process that must coincide with the curriculum, integrating all subjects, yet heavily reliant on ICT, skills not all pupils and teachers are competent in.

Luca (et al) citing Bloom and Bacon (1995, p.2) found “that especially new students may have difficulty with the lack of structure in the process,” the learner therefore needs to take ownership of the portfolio, understanding that through the student centred learning, combined with their individual approach, personal development will occur, although this is not as simple as it sounds.  The systems life cycle, a key element within the delivery of units within ICT, a process students are constantly reminded of, is an ideal model to map reflective learning, yet evidence suggests there are difficulties when completing a task as pupils tend not to complete the self evaluation forms, highlighting what they did well, not so well and how they can improve the next time.  As this is an integral part of developing an ePortfolio, aimed at enhancing learning, strategies such as rewarding good reflection, need to be put in place to ensure this learning tool is successful.

This is an area I shall attempt to introduce to my year 7 students.

 

Social Software

Social Software

During my time as Lecturer at Bradford School of Art I attempted to tap into the Social Networking technology through using Myspace, to ensure candidates were aware of deadlines and the current brief as the Myspace community was at its peak and seemed the logical way to ensure they were receiving messages as the majority spent a considerable amount of time building their online personas.  Students were not receptive to this approach, keeping their private and student lives separate.  Being also guilty of this, not adding colleagues from work, preferring to keep my work and personal life detached, I do however believe that this form of networking could aid education within secondary schools.

Social networking within the secondary school provokes a sense of fear and accountability within the institution (Nightingale, 2008), as the responsibility of “socialising” these young people (Coughlan , 2007), ensuring they adhere to the unspoken norms, lies greatly on the shoulders of the educators as well as the compelling, global, issue of
e-Safety (BECTA, 2007).  Whilst schools are generally approaching this as a whole school, PSHCE issue (Chapman), raising awareness not only regarding the dangers of grooming and predators but also that what you post online is there for the world to see, digital subcultures are forming who redefine the social norms of dominant culture to that of their online group (Buckingham, 2007).  Yet the norms of online behaviour are not defined or agreed for any digital social group, which can lead to online disputes.  One dispute that appears to be on the increase is cyber bullying and with the advancements in technology it is becoming more difficult for the victim to ignore and even more difficult for schools to deal with (Barton, 2008).  Institutions are generally unable to control this form of “socialising” and are reliant on webmasters of social networking sites to deal with any issues, although generally unsuccessfully and sometimes with consequence as there has been a severe increase in teen suicides related to cyber bullying.

In an attempt to control, links to sites such as Bebo, Myspace and Facebook are usually filtered and blocked, whilst instant messaging software, such as AIM and MSN Messenger are not installed; pupils find a way to bypass security protocols and use these technologies during lessons through third party sites.  It is therefore in schools’ best interests to absorb this phenomenon and utilise its impact through developing an online community of their own (Larsen, 2007), which can be monitored more vigilantly.   As social networkers are deemed socially uninhibited this would allow schools the opportunity to monitor problems such as bullying, identifying the bullies and bullied and tackle the problem with written evidence.

Social networking, online, is a skill that should be developed within the school environment alongside socialising, offline, facilitated by the educators, ensuring that the form of behaviour, is acceptable by all that contributes and online etiquette adhered.

My institution employs Microsoft SharePoint Server for the delivery of their intranet and Learning Gateway, which incorporates a variety of technologies that could develop, control and educate using the social networking approach.
Questioning pupils regarding the development of a school social network, many were enthused by the idea and thought it would be of great benefit.  I look forward to developing the social side of SharePoint.

 

Computers and Assessment

Computers and Assessment

Click here to open Assessment

Assessment for Learning is an area that is developing rapidly within the school sector.  The sharing of objectives and what is required to achieve the highest possible grades seem light years ahead from the primitive teachings of the 20th century.  Self-assessment is also key, developing autonomy and independence of thought.  Computers and assessment can have a significant impact on learning, developing quizzes and online assessment, that feeds back instantly can enhance and improve teaching and learning, showing the pupil where they need to concentrate on to develop.  In an attempt to develop the Learning Gateway at my institution I created an online quiz using Flash, to grasp whether the pupils understood the terminology for “Information: Fact, Opinion, Reliability, Validity and Bias.”  The response was good, and most pupils were engaged and focused, showing a clear understanding, benefiting from the quiz and the immediate feedback.

 

References

References

Barton, G., 2008. Let’s leave no hiding place for these cruel, silent cyberbullies. Published in The TES on 15 February, 2008

 

BECTA (2007) The role of the e-safety officer. Printer-friendly: Becta Local authorities – E-safety – E-safety issues – The role of the e-safety officer. Available at: http://localauthorities.becta.org.uk/index.php?section=esf&catcode=la_es_01&rid=14592&pagenum=1&NextStart=1&print=1 [Accessed January 10, 2009].

 

Bernard, S. Should schools regulate student use of online social networks? | Edutopia. Available at: http://www.edutopia.org/should-schools-regulate-student-use-online-social-networks [Accessed January 10, 2009].

 

Bloom B. & Bacon E. (1995) Using portfolios for individual learning and assessment Teacher Education and Special Education 18 (1) 1-9.

 

Buckingham, D. (2007) Introducing Identity. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning, -, pp.1-22. Available at: http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/dmal.9780262524834.001.

 

Chapman , R. e-Safety in Schools. Available at: http://74.125.77.132/search?q=cache:gSAPf1VK1bIJ:www.clusterweb.org.uk/docs/e-SafetyRecommendations_21.06.06.doc+global,+issue+of+e-Safety&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=10&gl=uk&client=firefox-a [Accessed January 10, 2009].

 

Coughlan  , S. (2007) Political lessons from discipline. BBC NEWS | Education | Political lessons from discipline. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/6924080.stm [Accessed January 10, 2009].

 

ePortfolio.org Use ePortfolio to achieve your goals. Welcome! | ePortfolio.org. Available at: http://eportfolio.org/ [Accessed December 30, 2008].

 

Groves, B. (1999) Standards for teaching and supporting learning in further?education in England and Wales. Further Education Development Agency, p.45.

 

Larsen, M.C. (2Larsen, M.C. (2007) Social networking in school. Social networking in school « My PhD Blog. Available at: http://malenel.wordpress.com/2007/11/28/social-networking-in-school/ [Accessed January 10, 2009].

 

Lerman, J. (1998) You’ve Got Mail! Electronic School. Available at: http://www.electronic-school.com/0398f5.html [Accessed November 16, 2008].

 

Nightingale, J. (2008) Alternative social networking: Overprotection or necessary control? Julie Nightingale on social networking sites in schools | Education | Education Guardian. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2008/may/06/link.link18 [Accessed January 10, 2009].

 

Luca, J.,  Polinelli, D. & Howell, J. Creating E-Portfolios to Support Student Career Opportunities.

 

Rogers, S.E., Topp, N.W. & Noren, J. CAMPUS-WIDE EPORTFOLIO INITIATIVE:  A CATALYST FOR IMPORTANT CHANGES & INSTITUTIONAL IMPROVEMENT . Available at: http://209.85.229.132/search?q=cache:waeWcIlX9pcJ:www.eife-l.org/publications/eportfolio/proceedings2/ep06/ep2006_papers/rogers+governments+eportfolio+initiative&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=uk [Accessed January 9, 2009].

 

 

SCRIBD Cyber Bullying. Cyber Bullying. Available at: http://www.scribd.com/doc/456102/Cyber-Bullying [Accessed January 9, 2009].

 

SmartPros (2006) Employers Google Job Candidates, Check Social Networking Web Sites. Employers Google Job Candidates, Check Social Networking Web Sites. Available at: http://accounting.smartpros.com/x54248.xml [Accessed January 9, 2009].

 

Smith, M. K. (2003) Jean Lave, Etienne Wenger and communities of practice. Available at: http://www.infed.org/biblio/communities_of_practice.htm [Accessed December 29, 2008].

 

Spider Networks ePortfolio. Spider Networks | ePortfolio. Available at: http://www.spider-networks.net/solutions/eportfolio.html [Accessed January 9, 2009].

 

Sun (2008) ePortfolios in Education: The Time Is Now. Edu Connection. Available at: http://www.sun.com/emrkt/educonnection/newsletter/0206eduinsight.html [Accessed December 21, 2008].

 

TES (2005) E-portfolios | Article | TES. E-portfolios | Article | TES. Available at: http://www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=2103792 [Accessed December 30, 2008].

 

Tolley, R. (2008) A Universal e-Portfolio? , p.9. Available at: collaboration.becta.org.uk/servlet/JiveServlet/download/1494-1235/Paris%20Thesis-3.pdf [Accessed December 30, 2008].

 

University of Glamorgan  (2006) About Blended Learning. CELT | Enhancing the Student Learning Experience: About Blended Learning | About Blended Learning. Available at: http://celt.glam.ac.uk/Blended-Learning-at-Glamorgan/?c=about_BL [Accessed November 16, 2008].

 

VMAP VMAP Visual Mapping of Portfolios. Available at: http://vmap.gold.ac.uk/ [Accessed December 21, 2008].

 

Vuorikari, R. (2005) Social networking software and e-portfolios foster digital learning networks. Available at: http://insight.eun.org/ww/en/pub/insight/misc/specialreports/digital_knowledge_artefacts.htm [Accessed December 30, 2008].

 

Young, D.D. & Lipczynski, K. (2007) Transferability of e-Portfolios in Education. Projects & Funding: Transferability of e-Portfolios in Education | ESCalate. Available at: http://escalate.ac.uk/eportfolios [Accessed December 21, 2008].

Warner, B. (2008) Is social networking a waste of time? – Times Online. Is social networking a waste of time? Available at: http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/article3536749.ece [Accessed December 28, 2008].

 

Behaviour Management

Introduction

Behaviour management of the classroom, is very complex, based on a hierarchical system of beliefs, controlled by the acceptance of behaviour within dominant culture.  Teachers within their established learning areas are expected to create harmonious, safe environments that produce socially acceptable beings who will make a positive contribution to society.  This duty is a great one with many perils as the school “social” structure is a place where the majority of its population, are members of differing subcultures, who, throughout their development aim to defy the “system” which strives to control and shape them into model citizens.  This could be considered to be deviant behaviour although very typical of human development.  Can then, the teacher mould the future generation and develop their interpersonal skills?  An arduous task that involves a great deal of intuition from the teacher, who must identify the needs of all pupils and cater for them, to promote a positive haven where safety, trust and security is key.

This paper aims to uncover aspects of behaviour and behaviour management based on the evidence and experience of a student teacher during their teaching practice at two placement schools, reflected critically against established academic writing.

To preserve anonymity the schools shall be identified as “[i]School A”, an Outstanding school according to Ofsted, and “[ii]School B”, a Satisfactory school, while the student teacher shall be referred to as “Student.”

 

 

Models of Behaviour

 

Models of behaviour can be clearly split into two categories within the school environment, compliant or deviant, yet each has varying levels of complexity, relevant to the individuals circumstances.  These can be broken down into a selection of variables such as; “immediate situation, general background, teacher, school, student and home” (Cole and Chan, 1987).  Each element can be favourable or unfavourable, as one would expect, reflecting general life.

These models are not exclusive to each child as they can sway from behaviour to behaviour depending on the implied classroom strategy.

Compliant

Clearly conforming to schools’ regulations, the compliant child is effectively a model citizen, adhering to the role set out by society and therefore exudes assertive behaviour and a positive attitude towards learning.

Assertive behaviour is:

• proactive;

• confident;

• consistent;

• positive in language and behaviour;

  • effective in communication
  • calm and self-controlled.

Deviant

Non-compliant pupils become viewed as anti-social, thus deviant.  Deviant behaviour varies depending on the current beliefs and norms within dominant culture and is recognised when Macionis describes this as a “violation of cultural norms.”  The most familiar representation of deviancy, is crime, translating this into an educational context would be noted as juvenile delinquency, yet unlike crime this is generally considered as a “passing phase.”  Whilst the educational environment echoes the moral boundaries of societal behaviour, deviance is only perceived through the definition of what a school will find acceptable depending on its organisational structure and form of “social control.”  Crime therefore can be behaviour such as not adhering to the school uniform policy and for example wearing large gold hoop earrings to more serious offences like physical assault.

Deviancy can be broken down into categories, passive or aggressive.

Passive behaviour tends to be:

  • •vague
  • •inconsistent
  • •unconfident
  • •reactive

Aggressive behaviour tends to be:

  • •reactive
  • •threatening
  • •rigid and authoritarian
  • •blaming

Through the existing power struggles determined between the “rule making and rule breaking” (Macionis), deviants attempt to establish their own position within an educational subculture that unknowingly emulates their foreseeable designated roles within society.  Macionis discusses the reflection of social inequality when he states “people we commonly consider deviants share the trait of powerlessness.”  This would imply pupils from low socio-economic backgrounds are more likely to behave in a deviant way, Cohen’s opinion on delinquency affirms that it is more pronounced “in lower class youths because they have the least opportunity to achieve” these theories shall be the clear foundation as both schools are situated amongst areas of social deprivation and exclusion.  Quoting Spitzer, Macionis states “people who cannot or will not work risk being labelled deviant” and there is clear correlation between grades and performance regarding the socially excluded as Petrides’ (et al, 2002) paper highlights the relationship “that trait EI (emotional intelligence) is relevant to scholastic achievement and deviant behaviour at school, especially for disadvantaged and vulnerable adolescents.”

The implications set out for deviant behaviour are generally negative but Covington (1999) quoting Durkheim’s argument,

“…crime is an inevitable and normal aspect of social life.  A limited amount of crime is necessary and beneficial to society, so much so that society could not exist without some form of deviance.”

As schools reflect society, this would suggest that without the presence of deviance, schools would not be able to function.  MacBeath describes how “people in positions of leadership” break the rules in order “to get things done.”  He suggests “it might be argued” that the 1990’s political climate has given “a license for deviance to school leaders.”  Headteachers were able “to indulge in creative accounting” an element that is still evident today as School B has a deficit of £350k, yet there was a £40k discrepancy for ‘cleaning services’ that had gone unnoticed by the Board of Governors affirming MaBeath’s analogy of creative accountancy and Macionis’ view of “social power.”  With this abuse of power, should teachers expect the pupils, not to engage in deviant behaviour, according to the TES “one of the most cited reasons for teachers leaving the profession,” and desist in the existing power struggle when it is clearly one rule for one and different for another.  If corruption and deviancy occurs within senior management, can the objective of educating pupils, social norms and values, occur through teachers, acting as role models and “agents of socialisation and control,” implementing school rules and expecting pupils to adhere to them.  It is important then to understand the structure of rules.

 

 

Classroom Rules

 

“Rules are there to be broken.”

The classroom setting is built upon rule structure and forms of behaviour acceptable to the social norms within a school which are usually set in place to promote a positive learning environment.  Rules are initially set out by the school, as a whole school policy, this is then usually adapted within each faculty according to the learning environment.  Sturt referencing Stone (1990) highlights five areas to be considered when drawing up rules

1.students’ safety

2.students’ respect and care for others

3.property in the classroom

4.students’ efforts at learning

5.obedience to the teacher

As discussed the variants of deviant behaviour do not intentionally begin with malice but classroom rules manifest themselves in various forms and are not always clear.  Rules therefore need to be established as early on in the term, considering the pupils’ opinions.  This task is quite difficult for any student teacher to undertake in an already established classroom setting, as the foundations have already been built and the student’s appearance can result in a compromising struggle of power between themselves and the pupils as their expectations may be very different to that of the host teacher.

The hierarchical system of beliefs begins with the unspoken rules, the norms.

Unspoken

Right and wrong are clearly defined words but not so in practice.  Society is built upon unspoken rules, norms and social expectations, which are generally thought of as “do unto others as you would have them do to you.”  This quote has different meanings for many individuals, as those clearly from deprived, low socio-economic groups with low emotional intelligence will have a very different interpretation of what “that doing” is.  Unspoken rules according to Moore (1989) are aimed mainly at adults and so it is from the teacher’s own expectations and morality that unspoken rules are based which would be considered generally as basic manners.  One must consider the behaviour variables of a pupil, if not conforming to the required norms, it is then that the unspoken must take on a new form, written.

Written

Written rules are usually displayed within the classroom setting for all pupils to see, as a reminder of the unspoken.

School B

1.Arrive on time, fully equipped and place your planner open on your desk.

2.Do as you are told by staff – first time, every time.

3.Listen carefully when requested by the teacher.

4.Put your hand up and wait for permission to speak.

5.Work to the best of your ability in every lesson.

6.Always record homework and deadlines in your planner.

7.Stand in silence at the end of the lesson until you are dismissed.

Spoken

Spoken rules according to Moore (1989) should be “clearly stated, consistent and as few as possible.”  These can be used to reinforce the already established, not yet adhered to, unspoken and written.  After ending half term on a bad note, whereby the Student kept the pupils in 5 minutes after school as punishment for not being quiet during register and persistently talking after two verbal warnings which resulted in the Student shouting and losing control, at School B in February the Student returned to implement a new classroom strategy.  They initially delivered the written classroom rules, as stated in the previous section, emphasising 2,3 and 7.  With the written rules clarified the Student explained the first new spoken rule, whereby the class would sit in silence for one minute whilst the register was being taken.  If any member of the class spoke the Student would start the register again, from the beginning, and any seconds over the given minute would be added on to the registration on Friday afternoon after school.  The pupils questioned how the Student arrived at the time, a minute, to which the reply was “a second for each of your names, a second for each reply and 12 seconds spare.”  This the pupils disputed and on the first day of implementation, the register took 5 minutes 26 seconds, indicating the beginning of the power struggle, and over the week the pupils accumulated 8 minutes 52 seconds to the end of their Friday.  Surprisingly by the end of the week, on Friday morning the register was taken in 39 seconds and to be consistent and fair, 21 seconds were removed from the total.  Alongside the no speaking during registration was the second new spoken rule which accompanies written rule number 7, where the pupils are given 30 seconds to stand behind their chairs in silence.  This regularly takes 90 seconds plus and the time over is also added to the Friday registration.  After a few days of unsuccessful attempts the Student demonstrated how to stand behind a chair in silence and was timed by the host teacher.  The result was 5 seconds, although this strategy has not yet been successful, the pupils are however getting better and during registration at the end of the second week the pupils were so well behaved and quiet that the Student did not know what to do apart from smile inside.  The Student should have offered praise or a reward.

Rewards

Reward schemes accompany the positive discipline policy as an incentive to promote good behaviour in both of the subject schools.  School A uses a series of Positive Referrals, which pupils collect and deposit into a post box.  These are counted at the school office and recorded in the Bromcom system

1.           A school ethos of encouragement is central to the promotion of good behaviour.  Rewards are one means of achieving this.  They have a motivational role in helping students to realise that good behaviour is valued, and are clearly defined in the procedures.  Integral to the system of rewards is an emphasis on praise both informal and formal to individuals and groups.

School B uses a stamp system, where student collect stamps from lessons which accumulate into credits.  These credits are recorded in their planner and the teacher counts them and writes down the total on a form which is then sent to the office who then issue a certificate on completion of each page.  The certificates are in order of importance using precious gems and metals as their names.

SECTION 4 – REWARDS

 

This is the key to Positive Discipline.  A rewards framework which encourages the active and direct involvement of as many teachers and pupils as possible is vital to the success of the system.  It is essential that all pupils are given the opportunity to operate within the rewards framework.

Sanctions

School A

1.           Sanctions are needed to respond to inappropriate behaviour.

 

2.           A range of sanctions are clearly defined in the procedures and their use will be characterised by clarity of why the sanction is being applied and what changes in behaviour are required to avoid future sanctions.  The procedures make a clear distinction between the sanctions applied for minor and major offences.

School B

SECTION 5 – SANCTIONS FOR BREAKING THE CLASSROOM RULES

 

All teachers have a responsibility to design and deliver interesting and well planned lessons. These must be in accordance with department policies and schemes of work.

 

Normal classroom management skills are to be employed and only if these fail do we use P.D. sanctions.

Sturt lists the typical hierarchy of sanctions

1.the look

2.hand sign

3.rule reminder

4.warnings one two and three

5.sanctions related to the behaviour problem

6.move place

7.time out, kept in at play

8.letter home

9.report to teacher

10.letter home from head teacher

11.on report to head teacher

12.formal warning letter from head teacher

13.one-day exclusion

14.two-day exclusion

15.five-day exclusion (Governors meets)

16.permanent exclusion (Governors meeting, local education authority involved)

Policies

School A

BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT The key to good behaviour management is clear, consistent & shared expectations.

 

The subject teacher will:

 

1.Use a range of responses to any incidents of disruptive behaviour (including internal faculty sanctions).

2.Share their rules and expectations with the class (this is best done in the first lesson you take with them) and be clear about what sanctions they will use and follow them through BUT

2.Reward good behaviour rather than punish bad.

3.Be assertive but try to avoid confrontation.

4.Remain calm and avoid shouting whenever possible.

5.Treat each student as an individual and be flexible and adaptable in their approach.

6.Fully use incident slips and BROMCOM codes and ask for form tutor/YAL/Assistant Headteacher / class reports at the start of the lesson.  Students know that these will be followed up.

7.Involve and seek the support of the form tutor, HoF, YAL, and parents.

8.Use CLASS SUPPORT only if all else fails.  Class Support will try to reintegrate the student back into the lesson


 

Models of Discipline

 

Behaviour management, the name given to the more ‘aggressive’ act of discipline, is founded on models which have been designed and constructed based generally on educational psychology and psychoanalytical theories.  Their aim, to offer a solution to the manifestation of the varying behaviours shown within the classroom environment.  There are many recognised models of discipline, this paper will specifically focus on Dreikurs and apply his model to classroom situations.

Dreikurs

Rudolf Dreikurs, an American psychiatrist, has based his work on the theories of [iii]Adler, whereby human behaviour is motivated by the desire to achieve a certain aim, goal or purpose.  His theory proposes that, “The need to belong is the fundamental motivator of human behaviour” and the negative behaviour displayed by a child stems from the feeling of isolation and social exclusion in an environment where they do not feel they belong.  Their behaviour can manifest itself, either passively or aggressively, in the following four simplistic mistaken ways, according to Dreikurs.

  • •Attention seeking
  • •Power seeking
  • •Revenge seeking
  • •Withdrawal / avoidance

Attention seeking behaviour can manifest itself on many levels in both acceptable and unacceptable ways.  A compliant pupil with an assertive behaviour would display socially acceptable behaviours and achieve at a high level as discussed earlier.  Unacceptable forms of behaviour that occur within the classroom and take time away from learning are:-

  • •to misbehave
  • •to be disruptive and lazy
  • •to ask for favours
  • •to throw things
  • •to cry, yell, fight

These reactive, disruptive behaviours do not always involve discord.

Power seeking behaviour is where a pupil attempts to gain control over the classroom environment.  Whilst in registration with a Year 7 class at School B the Student asked the class to be quiet whilst they took the register, yet most of the pupils continued to chat amongst themselves.  One pupil decided to scream “QUIET” in an attempt to control the class.  This display sees the pupil’s effort to gain acceptance or significance from the teacher and class through acting as a leader yet this strategy only causes disruption.  Their mistaken behaviour attempting to control the class results in the apparent loss of control by the pupil as they themselves were unable to follow the Student’s instruction.

During registration in the same class, the Student offered an incentive.  This was an invitation to a party on the Student’s last day for all the pupils who do not get five written comments in one week for the rest of the term, and in effect do not receive a detention.  The response was mixed as the pupils were quite surprised although the typically deviant pupils responded with “we don’t want to come to your party anyway.  It will be rubbish.”  This revenge seeking behaviour indicates the pupils unwillingness to co-operate, with the intention to hurt the Student in order to gain some satisfaction from the hurt they’re feeling in that they do not belong, unable to identify that it is their behaviour that does not belong, not them as a person.  This act could also be linked to avoidance and failure, where the pupil has already given up on the attempt of becoming a better behaved class member because of their feelings of inadequacy.  This theory is backed up by the consistent misbehaviour from one “deviant” pupil, who, through using low level strategies such as forgetting their glasses, claiming they cannot see the board, creates a situation where they are unwilling to challenge themselves, whilst also implementing more confrontational techniques such as refusing to sit in his seat amongst his peers.    Quite regularly does this pupil obtain twelve written comments a week from other teachers, a sign that their behaviour is consistently poor and sadly will not be attending the Student’s party.  It is characters like this that can bring the classroom alive if their energy is channelled productively.

In order for the Student to remedy the pupil’s behaviour reference was made to Dinkmeyer and Dinkmeyer’s (1976, cited in Sturt) procedures that breakdown Dreikurs’ model.  Initially the Student queried the amount of written comments in the pupil’s planner and why they were not concerned about detention.  Their reply was “I have other things on my mind.”  The Student uncovered that there were family variables, where the pupil’s parents had separated, the mother had taken in a new boyfriend, which was the cause of the misbehaviour.  Whilst discussing the Student determined the pupil’s motives and discovered they were misbehaving in order to cause disruption at home with the hope of the boyfriend leaving.  Explaining the flaws in the pupil’s mistaken goal and how the discipline and aggravation would occur at both school and home the pupil was able to understand the consequences with a hope to applying a better behaviour strategy.

Dreikurs’ model builds upon logical consequences where the pupil is more autonomous and responsible for their own behaviour, therefore faces the outcomes if the behaviour becomes deviant.  Edwards(1993) cited in Sturt “notes it also promotes respect between teachers and students.”  Sturt continues to explain “it may be over-simplistic to categorise all behaviours in the four classes of goals and to attribute all misbehaviour to mistaken assumptions about how to achieve goals” and that, “clear logical consequences can’t always be arrived at for all behaviours, or for all students.”  We must consider further corrective strategies with the aim to prevent misbehaviour.

Corrective Strategies

 

Corrective strategies can take form in both prevention and solution within the school context.  Di Giulio (2006) states there are four dimensions within corrective strategies, which are, “Spiritual, Physical, Instructional and Managerial.”

Spiritual

The Spiritual dimension is communication and key within the behaviour management strategy of a classroom.  As a tactic, the Student, whilst teaching a lesson “Publishing on the web” displayed a previously prepared website that offered a personal insight into their history.  They had created 4 pages that contained images of themselves growing up combined with an amusing caption.  This approach from the Student, offering the pupils little bits of information regarding their life is a means of forming positive, caring relationships with the pupils as Cothran et al. (2003) discovered that pupils “believed that part of getting to know each other was for the teacher to open up.”  This produced a positive work environment where the pupils were engaged and saw a purpose to their work creating an improved level of autonomy.

Physical

Building a positive learning environment is the Physical dimension where pupils safety and security are essential for successfully managing behaviour, as identified on the second level of [iv]Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.  The environment is not just the positive climate and inviting classroom surroundings, as physical appearance plays a huge part in behaviour from both teacher and pupil.  As stated in the Student’s Periodic Report from School A, pupils and staff frequently commented on the Student’s attire.  This appearance gained respect and co-operation from the pupils as Hawley et al (2007) discusses how physical attractiveness is seen as power.  Reaffirming this a member of staff in School B whilst introducing herself to the Student and querying who they were stated “you look more important than a student.”  From the teacher’s point of view, the physical attractiveness of a pupil can have a detrimental effect if this becomes a self fulfilling prophecy as pupils who were seen to be without beauty were often neglected by their teachers as they were seen as low achievers and in areas of social depravation and social exclusion this is quite common.  The Student whilst in School B was timetabled with a vocational year 10 group, with severe behavioural difficulties, a reduced timetable and whom according to the majority of staff “teachers of 25 years cannot teach them.”  They typified socially excluded pupils and “chav” culture with their appearance.  On their first meeting the Student’s initial presence provoked an aggressive response from the pupils which in turn created bad impression whereby the Student refused to teach the pupils for the six hours they had been timetabled.  Combining social aggression and the perceived unattractiveness of the pupils, formed negative expectations of academia and achievement from the Student.  After a few lessons the pupils and Student were able to build relationships as the pupils found the Student “cool” and the girls in the group found the Student “cute and attractive” which created the foundations for a positive learning environment.  This relationship has prevented the self fulfilling prophecy as Tauber (1998) discusses owing to the Student removing those “initial expectations” regarding attractiveness.

Instructional

The third dimension is Instructional.  Autonomous learners feel a greater sense of achievement, which can be promoted through Assessment for Learning, a strategy used successfully in outstanding School A, but not yet adopted satisfactory School B.  Engaging the year 10 group in School B with a creative brief involving designing video where the pupils had to create an awareness campaign highlighting the dangers of unprotected sex, substance abuse or smoking.  These topics, relevant to the socially excluded and as Halsey et al discovered “that themes, stimuli and creative activity worked successfully when they appeared to be relevant and meaningful to the young people.”  Another contributing factor to improving their behaviour is knowing that the Student was previously a designer providing “authenticity” to the project.   Instructed by the Head of Department to “just get them to a pass” the Student introduced the assessment criteria to the group and using AFL the Student was able to promote positive self discipline as the pupils saw the goals and knew what they had to do to achieve.  This inspired some pupils to aim toward Merit and Distinction grades, becoming more than what is expected of them.  The Student gave the pupils responsibility where they were allowed to go out and film within the building on their own.  This increased creativity and engagement within the pupils combined with the feeling of trust, producing fantastic results.

Managerial

The Managerial dimension sees the solution strategy of teacher intervention.  Howarth describes the purpose and method of interventions

  • •Allow the teacher to change the mood speed and activities of the class.
  • •Interventions should be clear, well directed, effective and easily read by the student.
  • •They should be as non-confrontational as possible

As the whole structure of behaviour management is built on a hierarchical system of behaviour, rules, rewards and sanctions, so is the teacher intervention strategy.

 

 

Comparisons

 

An example where we can appreciate the role of society on conscience is the differences in moral standards across cultures (Bandura, 1963).

This quote still rings true today as cultural beliefs and expectations seemingly play a huge role within behaviour.  School A, a predominantly Asian school of which approximately 80% are Muslim, employs a positive discipline strategy and detention scheme with pupil co-operation, yet School B, a 95% Caucasian school of no denomination, struggles with the implementation of positive discipline and detentions.  School A holds hour detentions after school which pupils attend on time and has been known that pupils have arrived and the teacher has forgotten, so the pupils leave after waiting five minutes for the teacher, showing clear responsibility and acceptance of consequence.  Yet in School B a team of teachers who are free during last lesson, period 5, ‘round the pupils up’ 15 minutes before the end, ensuring they attend a twenty minute detention, a third of the time compared to School A.  Clearly this method of removal not only impedes on the learning of the pupils but interferes with the “free time” of staff.  Whilst being escorted, the pupils regularly run away, not attending their detention and facing the consequence.  This defiance, results in a spell in isolation, a period that most pupils like as they are removed from their lessons and have escaped the detention which did not impinge on their personal time.  Although with the spell in isolation, another detention is issued, but the process begins again.  Yet if the pupil misses the second detention their parents are contacted, a threat which does not seem to bother the pupils.  This lack of pupil self discipline and sense of responsibility is clearly quite alarming and does not aim to produce socially acceptable beings.

 

 

Conclusion

 

To improve behaviour, it is essential that pupils are offered the opportunity to prove themselves by being given responsibility and not over controlled as this will result in rebellion.  Responsibility is essential in creating inclusive pupils who are able to act acceptably and communicate effectively, understanding the consequences for their actions.  As Ogden (2006) deconstructs Freud’s psychosexual theories, he highlights that responsibility and autonomy occurs in the formation of the superego whereby the child develops a conscience and guilt.  Blum (1985) outlines the “superego issues related to family and culture, social exclusion and persecution.”

Behaviour management therefore must not be seen to over control pupils but to encourage and develop the superego, forming social inclusion through learning consequence, acquisition of a conscience, and hence guilt.

 

Bibliography

 

Adalbjarnardottir, Sigrun, and Robert L. Selman. 1997. “I feel I have received a new vision:” An analysis of teachers’ professional development as they work with students on interpersonal issues. Teaching and Teacher Education 13, no. 4 (May): 409-428. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VD8-3SWVHDX-4/2/780eb71564bcd1c66f1e92f487f6d6ac.

 

Angelides P. 2000. A new technique for dealing with behaviour difficulties in Cyprus: the analysis of critical incidents. European Journal of Special Needs Education 15:55-68. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/rejs/2000/00000015/00000001/art00005.

 

Babyak, Allison E, Gayle J Luze, and Debra M Kamps. 2000. The Good Student Game: Behavior Management for Diverse Classrooms. Intervention in School and Clinic 35, no. 4: 216-223. http://isc.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/35/4/216.

 

Bandura, A. (1969). Social learning of moral judgements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 11, 274-279. http://daize.puzzling.org/school/freud1.htm

 

Bevington J., and Wishart J. G. 1999. The influence of classroom peers on cognitive performance in children with behavioural problems. British Journal of Educational Psychology 69:19-32. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bpsoc/bjep/1999/00000069/00000001/art00002.

 

Blum, H.P. (1985). Superego Formation, Adolescent Transformation, and the Adult Neur… J. Amer. Psychoanal. Assn., 33:887-909.

 

Clifford, Margaret M., and Elaine Walster. 1973. The Effect of Physical Attractiveness on Teacher Expectations. Sociology of Education 46, no. 2 (Spring): 248-258. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0038-0407%28197321%2946%3A2%3C248%3ATEOPAO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I.

 

Cole, P. G. and Chan, L.K.S.  1987. Teaching Principles and Practice. Sydney: Prentice Hall.

 

Coleman M. 2000. The female secondary headteacher in England and Wales: leadership and management styles. Educational Research 42:13-27. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/rere/2000/00000042/00000001/art00002.

 

Cothran, Donetta J., and Catherine D. Ennis. 1997. Students’ and teachers’ perceptions of conflict and power. Teaching and Teacher Education 13, no. 5 (July): 541-553. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VD8-3SWY7PJ-6/2/0ecee72e1ef4d778878bda242b4d641d.

 

Cothran, Donetta J., Pamela Hodges Kulinna, and Deborah A. Garrahy. 2003. “This is kind of giving a secret away…”: students’ perspectives on effective class management. Teaching and Teacher Education 19, no. 4 (May): 435-444. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VD8-48GP2KW-2/2/c5d2efd8708463c7f7e63adfd69bb1f0.

 

Covington, P. 1999, Deviance: Functionalist Explanations.  The Functionalist Explanation of Crime/22/11/1999/

 

Craig, Hewan. 1960a. The Teacher’s Function: Some Observations on an Aspect of the Teacher’s Job in Scotland. Journal of Educational Sociology 34, no. 1: 7-16. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0885-3525%28196009%2934%3A1%3C7%3ATTFSOO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8.

 

Didaskalou E. S., and Millward A. J. 2002. Breaking the Policy Log-jam: comparative perspectives on policy formulation and development for pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties. Oxford Review of Education 28:109-121. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/core/2002/00000028/00000001/art00007.

Robert C. Di Giulio, Ph.D. (2006) Positive Classrooms with Dr. Bob <http://www.digiulio.com/ClassMgt/>

 

Dreikurs, R. and Cassel, P (1972). Discipline without Tears, 2nd edition, pp. 1-84, A Plum Book http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Dreikurs%2C_Rudolf

 

Dreikurs, R, Grunwald, B. and Pepper, F. (1982) Maintaining Sanity in the Classroom, Harper and Row, New York

 

Dreikurs, R. and Grey, L (1968). The New Approach to Discipline: Logical Consequences, pp. 1-82, A plum Book http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Dreikurs%2C_Rudolf

 

Good or Bad, What Teachers Expect from Students They Generally Get! ERIC Digest. http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-3/good.htm (accessed December 31, 2007).

 

Haines, Kevin, and Stephen Case. 2003. Promoting Positive Behaviour in Schools: The Youth Social Audit. Youth Justice 3, no. 2: 86-103. http://yjj.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/3/2/86.

 

Halsey, Karen, Lord Pippa and Jones, Megan. Research project to identify what works in stimulating creativity amongst socially excluded young people http://www.nfer.ac.uk/research-areas/pims-data/summaries/research-project-to-identify-what-works-in-stimulating-creativity-amongst-socially-excluded-young-people.cfm

 

Hammond, N., and C. Bennett. 2002. Discipline differences in role and use of ICT to support group-based learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 18, no. 1: 55-63. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.0266-4909.2001.00211.x.

 

Horner, Robert H, Anne W Todd, Teri Lewis-Palmer, Larry K Irvin, George Sugai, Joseph B Boland, et al. 2004. The School-Wide Evaluation Tool (SET): A Research Instrument for Assessing School-Wide Positive Behavior Support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 6, no. 1: 3-12. http://pbi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/6/1/3.

 

Howarth, Roy. 1997 Scanning, Intervening and Managing http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/%7Eebdstudy/strategy/clasroom.htm#intervene

 

Hunsberger, Bruce, Cavanagh. Brenda 198. Physical attractiveness and children’s expectations of potential teacher. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1520-6807(198801)25:1<70::AID-PITS2310250112>3.0.CO;2.

 

Interventions, OSEP Center on Positive Behavioral, George Sugai, Robert H Horner, Glen Dunlap, Meme Hieneman, Timothy J Lewis, et al. 2000. Applying Positive Behavior Support and Functional Behavioral Assessment in Schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 2, no. 3: 131-143. http://pbi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/2/3/131.

 

Jitendra, Asha K, Lana L Edwards, Claire M Choutka, and Pamela S Treadway. 2002. A Collaborative Approach to Planning in the Content Areas for Students with Learning Disabilities: Accessing the General Curriculum. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 17, no. 4: 252-267. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/0938-8982.t01-1-00023.

 

Kelly, Á, ine [1], Seá Carey, n [2], Siobhan [1] McCarthy, Ciará Coyle, et al. 2007. Challenging behaviour: principals’ experience of stress and perception of the effects of challenging behaviour on staff in special schools in Ireland. European Journal of Special Needs Education 22:161-181. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/rejs/2007/00000022/00000002/art00004.

 

Lewis, Ramon. 2001a. Classroom discipline and student responsibility:: The students’ view. Teaching and Teacher Education 17, no. 3 (April): 307-319. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VD8-42BSH95-4/2/7badd1a6cd82736e635a5ff2cd75d19b.

 

LUKINSKY, JOSEPH S, and Philip W. Lown School. 1970. Structureâ in Educational Theory. Educational Philosophy and Theory 2, no. 2: 15-31. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-5812.1970.tb00156.x.

 

Lunenberg, Mieke, Fred Korthagen, and Anja Swennen. 2007. The teacher educator as a role model. Teaching and Teacher Education 23, no. 5 (July): 586-601. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VD8-4MP5KPF-1/2/9b87bd0f9000f306415e74947cacb1a3.

 

MacBeath John (ed). 1998, Effective School Leadership. Responding to Change. Paul Chapman Publishing

 

Marjanovic, O. 1999. Learning and teaching in a synchronous collaborative environment. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 15, no. 2: 129-138. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-2729.1999.152085.x.

 

Martin, Harriet [1], and David [2] Carroll. 2005. An Evaluation of the Use of the Behaviour Questionnaire. Educational Psychology in Practice 21:175-196. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/cepp/2005/00000021/00000003/art00002.

 

McCurdy, Barry L, Mark C Mannella, and Norris Eldridge. 2003. Positive Behavior Support in Urban Schools: Can We Prevent the Escalation of Antisocial Behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 5, no. 3: 158-170. http://pbi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/5/3/158.

 

Moore, Dennis W, Angelika Anderson, and Koshila Kumar. 2005. Instructional Adaptation in the Management of Escape-Maintained Behavior in a Classroom. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 7, no. 4: 216-223. http://pbi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/7/4/216.

 

Myers E.[1], and Murphy J.[2]. 1995. Suburban secondary school principals perceptions of administrative control in schools. Journal of Educational Administration 33:14-37. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/mcb/074/1995/00000033/00000003/art00002.

 

Ogden, T.H. (2006). Reading Loewald: Oedipus Reconceived. Int. J. Psycho-Anal., 87:651-666.

 

Orlander, Jay D, Mukund Gupta, B Graeme Fincke, M Elizabeth Manning, and Warren Hershman. 2000. Co-teaching: a faculty development strategy. Medical Education 34, no. 4: 257-265. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-2923.2000.00494.x.

 

K.V. Petridesa,*, Norah Fredericksonb, Adrian Furnhamb The role of trait emotional intelligence in academic performance and deviant behavior at school Personality and Individual Differences 36 (2004) 277–293

 

Popkins R , 1998. Physical Appearance. http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/popkins2.html (accessed December 31, 2007)

 

Roland E., and Galloway D. 2002. Classroom influences on bullying. Educational Research 44:299-312. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/rere/2002/00000044/00000003/art00006.

 

Scott, Terrance M, and George Martinek. 2006. Coaching Positive Behavior Support in School Settings: Tactics and Data-Based Decision Making. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 8, no. 3: 165-173. http://pbi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/8/3/165.

 

Stoughton, Edy Hammond. 2007. “How will I get them to behave?”: Pre service teachers reflect on classroom management. Teaching and Teacher Education 23, no. 7 (October): 1024-1037. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VD8-4KGPPCT-1/2/73c11aed112c9ad713ec022a4370e021.

 

Teacher expectations-Tauber. http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/files/teacherexpect.html (accessed December 31, 2007).

 

Tiberghien, A., and E. de Vries. 1997. Relating characteristics of teaching situations to learner activities. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 13, no. 3: 163-174. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-2729.1997.00018.x.

 

Tschannen-Moran M., and Hoy W. 1998. Trust in schools: a conceptual and empirical analysis. Journal of Educational Administration 36:334-352. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/mcb/074/1998/00000036/00000004/art00002.

 

WARRINGTON M.[1], and YOUNGER M.[1]. 2003. We Decided to Give it a Twirl: single-sex teaching in English comprehensive schools. Gender and Education 15:339-350. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/cgee/2003/00000015/00000004/art00001.

 

Weber, Sandra, and Claudia Mitchell. 1996. Drawing ourselves into teaching: Studying the images that shape and distort teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education 12, no. 3 (May): 303-313. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VD8-3VVVMVW-6/2/63dec84d88a07de0d89483ab60c70324.

 

West M. 1999. Micropolitics, Leadership and all that . . . The need to increase the micropolitical awareness and skills of school leaders. School Leadership & Management 19:189-195. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/cslm/1999/00000019/00000002/art00006.

 

West-Burnham J. 1997. Leadership for Learning reengineering ‘mind sets’. School Leadership & Management 17:231-244. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/cslm/1997/00000017/00000002/art00008.

 

Young, S. S. -C. 2004. In search of online pedagogical models: investigating a paradigm change in teaching through the School for All community. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 20, no. 2: 133-150. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2004.00073.x.

 

 

 

Policies

School A

 

BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT

A MODEL POLICY FOR SCHOOL A

The Principles

1.         The Governing Body believes that in order to enable effective teaching and learning to take place, good behaviour in all aspects of school life is necessary.  It seeks to create a caring, learning environment in the school by:

•          promoting good behaviour and discipline;

•          promoting self-esteem, self-discipline, proper regard for authority and positive relationships based on mutual respect;

•          ensuring fairness of treatment for all;

•          encouraging consistency of response to both positive and negative behaviour;

•          promoting early intervention;

•          providing a safe environment free from disruption, violence, bullying and any form of harassment;

•          encouraging a positive relationship with parents and carers to develop a shared approach to involve them in the implementation of the school’s policy and associated procedures.

Roles and Responsibilities

2.         The Governing Body will establish, in consultation with the Headteacher, staff and parents, the policy for the promotion of good behaviour and keep it under review.  It will ensure that it is communicated to students and parents, is non-discriminatory and the expectations are clear.  Governors will support the school in maintaining high standards of behaviour.

3.         The Headteacher will be responsible for the implementation and day-to-day management of the policy and procedures.  Support for staff faced with challenging behaviour is also an important responsibility of the Headteacher.

4.         Staff, including teachers, support staff and volunteers, will be responsible for ensuring that the policy and procedures are followed, and consistently and fairly applied.  Mutual support amongst all staff in the implementation of the policy is essential.  Staff have a key role in advising the Headteacher on the effectiveness of the policy and procedures.  They also have responsibility, with the support of the Headteacher, for creating a high quality-learning environment, teaching good behaviour and implementing the agreed policy and procedures consistently.

5.         The Governing Body, Headteacher and staff will ensure there is no differential application of the policy and procedures on any grounds, particularly ethnic or national origin, culture, religion, gender, disability or sexuality.  They will also ensure that the concerns of students are listened to and appropriately addressed.

6.         Parents and carers will be expected to take responsibility for the behaviour of their child both inside and outside the school.  They will be encouraged to work in partnership with the school to assist the school in maintaining high standards of behaviour and will have the opportunity to raise with the school any issues arising from the operation of the policy.

7.         Students will be expected to take responsibility for their own behaviour and will be made fully aware of the school policy, procedure and expectations.  Students also have a responsibility to ensure that incidents of disruption, violence, bullying and any form of harassment are reported.

Procedures

8.         The procedures arising from this policy will be developed by the Headteacher in consultation with the staff.  The procedures will make clear to the students how acceptable standards of behaviour can be achieved and will have a clear rationale which is made explicit to staff, students and parents.  The procedures will be consistently and fairly applied and promote the idea of personal responsibility and that every member of the school has a responsibility towards the whole community.

Rewards

9.         A school ethos of encouragement is central to the promotion of good behaviour.  Rewards are one means of achieving this.  They have a motivational role in helping students to realise that good behaviour is valued, and are clearly defined in the procedures.  Integral to the system of rewards is an emphasis on praise both informal and formal to individuals and groups.

Sanctions

10.      Sanctions are needed to respond to inappropriate behaviour.

11.      A range of sanctions are clearly defined in the procedures and their use will be characterised by clarity of why the sanction is being applied and what changes in behaviour are required to avoid future sanctions.  The procedures make a clear distinction between the sanctions applied for minor and major offences.

Training

12.      The Governing Body will ensure the appropriate high quality training on all aspects of behaviour management is provided to support the implementation of the policy.

Interrelationship with other school policies

13.      In order for the behaviour policy to be effective, a clear relationship with other school policies, particularly equal opportunities, special educational needs and anti-bullying, has been established.

Involvement of outside agencies

14.      The school works positively with external agencies.  It seeks appropriate support from them to ensure that the needs of all students are met by utilising the range of external support available.

Review

15.      The Headteacher, in consultation with the staff, will undertake systematic monitoring and conduct regular reviews of the behaviour management policy and procedures in order to evaluate them to ensure that the operation is effective, fair and consistent.  The Headteacher will keep the Governing Body informed.

16.      The Governing Body will regularly review this policy and associated procedures, to ensure its continuing appropriateness and effectiveness.  The review will take place in consultation with the Headteacher, staff and parents.

17.      The outcome of the review will be communicated to all those involved, as appropriate.

26 April 2004

 

 

 

School B

 

SCHOOL B HIGH SCHOOL

PUPIL BEHAVIOUR & DISCIPLINE

Good behaviour and discipline in school are essential to successful teaching & learning.

The school plays a significant part in promoting the spiritual, moral and cultural development of its young people.  The ethos of this school as specified in its aims, includes reference to the values which matter in school and the community, including respect for each other, self, property, honesty, trust & fairness.

This school, like most others is largely successful in promoting good behaviour and discipline.  However, the behaviour of a proportion of pupils is unacceptable.

We believe we are entitled to the support of parents & guardians and will always try to enlist this; we have to accept that it is not always forthcoming.

The school’s positive behaviour policy sets out the behaviour expected of pupils, rewards to encourage this and sanctions and procedures available for instances of unacceptable behaviour.

The style and atmosphere of the school itself, including the demeanour of the staff is acknowledged to be of significance in encouraging an atmosphere of respect for others.

Teachers are expected to follow good practice and show respect for pupils: clear rules, clear instructions, clear work and behaviour requirements.  Misbehaviour should be handled quickly & fairly, work designed to be appropriate to pupils’ needs, lessons started and ended on time and with a minimum of interruptions.

A sense of responsibility and consideration among pupils may be fostered by positively acknowledging acts of consideration, giving responsibility of caring for younger or new pupils, commending behaviour to parents and encouraging public reward of pupils who demonstrate commendable attitude and conduct.

Punishment

Heads & teachers have legal authority to impose reasonable punishment.  These punishments and the behaviours likely to incur them should be known to parents and pupils and must be administered fairly and consistently.

Punishment of whole groups is rarely (if ever) appropriate.  Punishment should be in proportion to the offence.

Humiliating or degrading punishments are not acceptable.

Those who provoke or lead misbehaviour should be dealt with accordingly.

Exclusions

Exclusion is used sparingly.  Alternatives to exclusion include:

internal exclusion (pupil working on their own), “close supervision” (pupil attached to one senior member of staff), serial loss of free time, referral by HoY to Mentor.

Any significant incident(s) or patterns of unacceptable behaviour will be communicated to parents.  When possible, close consultation and partnership will be promoted with parents/guardians including ongoing review meetings or contact.

When school is made aware of stresses within the family, consideration will be made of the implications of these problems.

Preliminary factors considered when exclusion may be used;

•          age & state of health of pupil

•          pupil’s previous record at this school

•          particular personal (eg; domestic) circumstances

•          extent of peer (or parental) pressure

•          degree of severity of the behaviour, frequency & likelihood of its recurring

•          whether the behaviour impaired the functioning of the school (ie its effect on other pupils & staff) or whether the behaviour impaired the safety of pupils or adults

•          whether the behaviour was on the school premises, on the way to or from school or while pupil was in the care of the school (eg of site activities)

•          degree of violation of school’s behaviour policy and its relative importance

•          whether the incident was perpetrated by one pupil or the pupil as part of a group – scapegoating is to be avoided

•          whether it would be more relevant to use another strategy including reference to outside support agencies such as Educational Psychology or welfare agencies.

*** In all cases of exclusion, Education Leeds guidelines & procedures are followed strictly ***

BEHAVIOUR POLICY

A set of principles, rules, routines and procedures which:

•          Is designed to enhance the learning and social environment of the school.

•          Represents a framework for the conduct of members of the school community.

•          Provides a hierarchical range of responses to promote positive        behaviour at all levels.

•          States the range and use of responses for those who do not act in acceptable ways.

•          Incorporates mechanisms to maintain and review procedures.

Pupil behaviour:

The extent to which pupils’ attitudes and actions, contribute to or restrict~

•          Standards of achievement

•          Effective learning in the classroom

•          The quality of life in the school

•          The functioning of the school as an orderly community

Discipline:

The extent to which the school’s policies, procedures and practices contribute

to ~

•          Good behaviour

•          The quality of life in the school

•          The functioning of the school as an orderly community

•          The development of self-discipline

Additional to these:

•          Data on exclusions and referrals

•          Views of pupils, parents and teachers on incidence of bullying and the school’s response

•          Rewards and sanctions

POSITIVE BEHAVIOUR & DISCIPLINE

As well as aiming for the highest possible academic achievement for all our students, School B High School considers standards of good behaviour and appearance to be of the utmost importance.

We are proud of our existing and improving reputation for being a school in which visitors are treated in a friendly, courteous and helpful manner.

Positive Behaviour

1) Merit System

Teachers are encouraged to award Merits for particularly good work or effort in class. These should be recorded on the “Personal Achievement Record” pages in the Student Planner/Homework Diary. Pupils will then take their merits to their Head of Year / School who will keep a record and also place a Merit Sticker in the planner.  At the discretion of the Head of Year / School, when an appropriate number has been achieved by an individual, a commendation, signed by the Head will be presented in the Head’s office.  Achievement of a third commendation will result in a personal letter from the Head being sent to the successful student’s parents.  Any pupil achieving 5 Commendations, will be awarded a Gold Merit for inclusion in their RoA. Further categories of certificate may be devised.

Teachers are urged to make use of this reward and to consider giving merits to all Year groups, including those in Upper School.

2) House Points

From September 2002, house points will relate only to extra curricular activities.

Form tutors are invited to grant 1, 2 or 3 house points per pupil at the end of each term for general conduct and contribution to the form.  Pupils who take part in activities/clubs/teams and form discussions and who behave & attend well (thus contributing to form attendance results), will deserve 3 points. Those who do not make a positive contribution to form or school life may not be given any points.

Sports activities and competitions already generate house points.

Opportunities exist within ALL subject areas to develop house activities and competitions.

Prizes will be awarded to the winning house.

Staff are assigned membership of a house.

POSITIVE BEHAVIOUR & DISCIPLINE   Continued (2)

3) Attendance Certificates

Attendance certificates and entry into a prize draw are awards for good and improving attendance as well as time bonuses  and class trips.

4) Record of Achievement

Pupils input to the record should include Gold merits/commendations, attendance certificates, & certificates of involvement in school activities (eg Residentials), as well as details of personal achievements not necessarily associated with school (eg membership of community sports clubs or activities).

DISCIPLINE

There are times when pupils step out of line and behave inappropriately.  Misconduct should never be condoned or ignored and sanctions when used should be applied consistently with firmness and fairness.

Many of our pupils rarely misbehave so that the framework of expected behaviour and values is intended to provide an environment in which they can learn and develop positively.  For this majority of pupils, the system of referral and sanctions is the protection which allows them to be confident and to benefit from their school life in a comfortable and positive atmosphere.

A small minority of pupils “test” the system persistently for a variety of reasons.  These pupils must always be dealt with appropriately or referred to a proper authority in order to maintain the comfortable working atmosphere for which FPHS strives.  Staff who follow the principles and guidelines outlined as follows and combine them with the positive recognition of success, will find that they work effectively in most cases.  If they appear not to be having success, staff can expect and rely on the support and further action of colleagues, the Pastoral Team and the Head.

DISCIPLINE WITHIN THE CLASSROOM

Good behaviour and positive attitudes towards work may be encouraged in pupils when they consistently experience the following:

1)   A prompt start to lessons.

2)   A controlled business-like classroom atmosphere.

3)   An orderly finish to lessons.

4)   Appropriate teaching styles and differentiation of work.

5)   Careful lesson preparation, and regular, prompt marking of class and homework with appropriate feedback.

6)   Recognition of good work through merits, house points and display.

7)   Sharing of teaching objectives/targets and evaluation of them through RoA.

8)   Insistence in all departments and areas of school life on consistently good standards of work and behaviour.

9)   Application of overtly fair and reasonable standards equitably to all members of groups.

10)  Consistent expectation of good organisation by pupils in bringing correct equipment, keeping to deadlines, use of Student organisers and asking  for help.

POSITIVE BEHAVIOUR & DISCIPLINE  Continued (3)

 

ATTITUDES to be ENCOURAGED

1)  Respect for others.

2)  Respect for property and environment.

3)  Common courtesy.

4)  Listening and responding appropriately.

5)  Respect for positive attitudes and achievements.

ATTITUDES & ACTIONS WHICH SHOULD NOT BE TOLERATED

1)  Bullying of any kind.

2)  Bad language – including insults, racial abuse and reference to drug abuse.

3)  Excessive or inappropriate noise – including shouting out.

4)  Lateness

5)  Lack of proper equipment or preparation for lessons.

6)  Leaving room untidy.

7)  Eating in class or registration – including chewing gum.

8)  Wearing outside clothing in class or registration.

9)  Moving around or leaving the room without permission.

10) Disturbing the work of others.

11) Graffiti or vandalism

12) Violence – even in play.

DISCIPLINE OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM

THE STANDARD OF BEHAVIOUR THROUGHOUT THE SCHOOL AT School B CAN BE KEPT HIGH BY THE DETERMINED, UNITED AND CONSISTENT EFFORT OF ALL THE STAFF.

Positive behaviour outside the classroom sets the tone for good behaviour within lessons.

The key areas and times are as follow:

1)  The beginning and end of each school session.

2)  Breaks and lunchtimes

3)  Lesson changeovers – it would be helpful & beneficial if staff stand at classroom doors and oversee transfers.

4)  Whenever pupils are outside the room during lesson time (eg toilet trips).

5)  Assemblies, including arrival and departure.

Staff should INSIST upon:

1)  Punctuality and prompt return to lessons when whistle blows.

2)  Orderly movement and care with bags.

3)  Care & consideration towards others.

4)  Reasonable levels of noise and use of language.

POSITIVE BEHAVIOUR & DISCIPLINE  Continued (4)

Staff should treat as unacceptale:

1)   Bullying of any kind or degree, or threatening behaviour.

2)   Spitting, swearing or chewing gum.

3)   Smoking on the premises or on the way in to or out of the school grounds.

4)   Litter or (especially in the dining room) mess.

5)   Graffiti, vandalism or abuse of property or facilities.

6)   Insolence.

7)   Disobedience.

8)   Leaving the premises without permission.

9)   Rowdy behaviour.

10) Association with drug culture (including comments and graffiti).

DEALING WITH UNACCEPTABLE BEHAVIOUR.

For minor infringements of standards, it is usually sufficient for an offending pupil to be told firmly and quietly that the behaviour is unacceptable and must not occur again.  Any apologies necessary to staff, peers or visitors should be made on the spot, and the matter closed.

If the situation is deemed by the member of staff to be more serious, then a range of sanctions or referral will be resorted to……

SANCTIONS:

Separating pupil(s) within the room.

Asking pupil to wait outside for a moment to cool off.  (Beware of unsupervised misbehaviour outside room).

Keeping the pupil or sub-group of pupils behind at end of lesson.

NB:  It is rarely (if ever) justifiable to punish a whole class of pupils.  Usually, at least some will be behaving acceptably.

NB:  Pupils may not be delayed at a hometime for more than up to 10 minutes without prior warning to parents and consideration should always be given to transport problems & domestic situations such as collecting younger siblings.

Break or lunchtime detention(s) under supervision of teacher.

1/2  hour detention after school under supervision of teacher.  In this case, a detention form should be filled in and a copy given to the pupil and one to the Head of Year / School.  The forms are available in the school office and must allow at least 24 hours notice.

For any detention, activity should be provided.  This may be lines, work, incident report or a task appropriate to the behaviour such as graffiti removal or litter collection.

POSITIVE BEHAVIOUR & DISCIPLINE  Continued (5)

After any incident of significantly bad behaviour or after noticing repeated or a pattern of unacceptable behaviour, please will colleagues complete an Incident Report (obtainable from  school office) and give to Head of Year / School.  This is essential even though the situation may have been dealt with fully because it is necessary for the Pastoral team to be kept informed of  deterioration in pupils’ behaviour and to note trends developing.

All sections should be completed.

REFERRAL of Pupils for Disciplinary Action:

If a member of staff has a continuing concern over a pupil’s behaviour, would like assistance in dealing with a situation or considers an incident to demand more serious measures, then the support of the pastoral team is readily available.

It is important to make referrals through a chain of hierarchical command in order to retain flexibility in dealing with pupils and to allow for increasing pressure if necessary by climbing further rungs of the pastoral ladder.

In the first instance it can be useful to discuss small problems with the pupil’s form tutor who may be able to offer an experienced perspective on the miscreant or put pressure on the pupil to make a fresh start.

If the misbehaviour appears to relate to curriculum issues, it may be helpful to discuss the situation with the Head of Department regarding group organisation etc. or the possibility of temporary / permanent transfer of pupil.  Similarly, the SEN Coordinator may be able to assist in situations particularly those involving pupils with learning difficulties.

If you consider an incident or trend in behaviour demands further sanction or investigation, referral may be made at the end of the lesson via an incident slip to the Head of Year / School.  Such a referral will always be followed up as soon as possible (although not necessarily immediately) and you will be kept informed and if relevant, involved.

In the first instance, Head of Year / School may choose to introduce longer

(1 hour) detentions, or multiple detentions.  Periods of isolation or internal exclusion may also be operated.

School B operates a policy of involving parents when concerned about pupil behaviour so parents may be invited by Head of Year / School to come to school to discuss strategies and possibly to fix follow up meetings to monitor progress.

POSITIVE BEHAVIOUR & DISCIPLINE  Continued (6)

If an incident is of major significance, referral should be made or assistance requested immediately.

Such misbehaviours would include violence, verbal abuse to staff, persistent disobedience / absolute refusal to do as told, eg to remove coat etc.

In these instances, the referral should be made immediately to the Head of Year / School or in his / her absence, to any member of senior management or staff.  NB: Ideally, as stated before, the chain of command is followed as usual.

The emergency referral may be made in any convenient, safe and efficient way.  Eg: telephone to a pastoral office, phone to school office with message, send reliable pupil to get assistance, enlist help from nearby Head of Department or colleague.

Colleagues are particularly requested not to tolerate any instance of “backchat” and to take immediate action at one of the above levels.

NB: Do not send pupils to Pastoral Office without first ascertaingin HoY is available.

NB: Do not leave a class unsupervised by a teacher.

If a pattern of unacceptable behaviour develops, strategies which may be employed include:

–  Daily report to form tutor  (Yellow)

–  Daily report to Head of Year (Red)

–  Pastoral support programme.

–  Referral to Learning Mentor

–  Referral to Pupil Referral Service – Outreach

–  Referral to Pupil Referral Service – Dual Registration

–  Referral to Learning Support Unit

–  Short term exclusion(s)

–  Permanent exclusion

 

 

Incident

 

Letter from Student to Senior Management

 

To: MCU, ASM, DPO, ARY

From: MFO

Date: 6/03/08

Re: 10voccit incident on 4 March 2008

 

During my initial meeting with 10voccit it became apparent that these pupils engage quite regularly in “inappropriate” behaviour in and outside school and are incredibly vocal about their actions.  I believed it in the best interests of this group to educate them about the consequences their actions could have.  During my time working with the group I have had some quite frank and interesting discussions regarding unprotected sex, smoking and substance abuse.

 

The class has divided into groups, each tackling one of the issues in the aim of creating an awareness campaign aimed toward 13 – 16 year olds about the dangers of the aforementioned topics.

 

I felt that the students would respond well given responsibility to film on their own, increasing creativity without the presence of a teacher.  On 2 previous occasions a group had filmed within the school, alone, and created some very pleasing, interesting and creative work, returning to the classroom, with the equipment undamaged, inspired and motivated.  I believed this was possible again and on the 4 March the same group of girls continued their filming in the toilets using the props I had supplied them.  After filming they returned to the class and continued with their work.  The second group of girls were also allowed to film their sequence in the toilets (the toilets used for the set as this is a refuge within the school environment for pupils).  Whilst they were filming they were approached by JNE who asked for a note in their planner.  JNE came up to see me and I followed her down to the toilets.  She aired her concerns about the girls being in the toilet as they had apparently been truanting in there the previous lesson.  I explained what they were doing.  Entering the girls toilet I was hit by the smell of smoke, a smell not uncommon coming from the toilets of both sexes in the Tech block.  Asking the girls if they had been smoking, their reply was “no we haven’t, we haven’t even got our bags with us so we couldn’t have.”  I was unaware that PUPIL had been smoking until the footage had been retrieved from the camera.  I had not given the girls permission to smoke in the toilets and as far as I was concerned they were tackling the subject of teenage pregnancy, not smoking.   Although their actions are incredibly inappropriate and illegal, the footage highlights the incidence of pregnant mothers smoking which was quite inventive, showing their engagement and knowledge of the topic and offers an opinion which is quite admirable.

 

Within 10voccit are 2 pupils who are tackling smoking.  We have been trying to arrange for them to capture some footage of smokers but have been unsuccessful in doing this for the last 2 weeks as it has not been convenient for myself and the pupils to meet off the school site at lunch.  This inconvenience clarifies that I have not allowed any pupil to engage in smoking within the school grounds as had I have allowed this behaviour the footage would have been captured 2 weeks ago.  This idea has now evolved and has been shot (6 March) within the school grounds without the use of a lit cigarette or anyone smoking.

 

Regarding the incident of filming, “rolling a joint,” I believe I acted in the best interests of the pupils in keeping the shooting of the video within the classroom as had I have let the boys out to film, the footage captured would have been more inappropriate.  We were using the FRANK statistic of “1 in 3 people have taken drugs” and the “joint” would signify the “1.”

 

I realise that my liberal approach has resulted in some quite inappropriate behaviour, but my intentions are to engage the pupils using topics that they relate to in the hope of educating them not only in ICT but aspects relevant to their life.

 

I sincerely apologise for causing any concern and the resulting behaviour of 10voccit and shall readdress my approach to this topic with immediate effect adhering to the structure set out by ARY.

 

Appendixes


[i] “School A” is a larger than average mixed comprehensive school for 1,402 students aged 11-18 of whom 309 are in the sixth form. The school is located approximately 1 mile outside the city centre. The area is recognised as having significant socio-economic deprivation and a high proportion of students are eligible for free school meals. Nearly all of the students are from minority ethnic backgrounds and the majority speak English as an additional language. The students’ attainment on entry to the school is well below average and a higher than average number of students have learning difficulties and/or disabilities.  In September 2006 it acquired specialist college status for mathematics and computing.

[ii] “School B” is smaller than average with a small sixth form. It is, however, growing and serves a catchment that includes areas of social and economic disadvantage. The great majority of pupils are from White British backgrounds and a higher than average number of pupils are eligible for free school meals. The proportion of pupils with learning difficulties and/or disabilities is below average, although the number of pupils with statements to support special educational needs is broadly average.  It is also part of the Building Schools for the Future proposals which will take effect from 2009, when the school will admit 1200 pupils. A new headteacher was appointed in September 2005.

[iii] http://www.adleriansociety.co.uk/phdi/p3.nsf/supppages/0939?opendocument&part=02

Alfred Adler was a General Practitioner and a Psychiatrist who lived in Vienna, Austria. In the last eleven years of his life, he devoted most of his time to teaching, lecturing and travelling in England, Scotland, Scandinavia, Germany and the United States, where he eventually settled. He died while on tour in Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1937.

As the founder of Individual Psychology, he is amongst the most important figures in 20th Century psychology. (The term Individual Psychology refers to the indivisible nature of the human personality).

Originally a colleague of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, Adler resigned from Freud’s Psychoanalytic Society in 1911 due to growing differences in their respective theories. In particular, Adler disputed Freud’s assertion that sex or libido is the fundamental drive which determines human behaviour. Rather, Adler argued that human beings strive to belong and to overcome early feelings of inferiority through the construction of personal and subjective goals. Adlerians stress the unity of the mind, body and spirit and the interactions between individuals and the larger community.

Many of his approaches are well suited to the 21st Century and his work is today more relevant than ever before. His jargon-free lectures and books for the general public are characterized by a crystal clear common sense and applicable for use in ever day life.

Balls

Investigation into the relationship between men and their genitals

 


 

Introduction

The image of man is not a new phenomena  but something that has been depicted for thousands of years.  Through the ages, emerging from early cave paintings, images depict man as a strong, heroic provider and protector, where at the forefront of this stands the male genitalia.   The penis, probing and protruding, has been the general focus of the genitals within these images, portrayed in varying sizes,  indicating how ‘much of a man’ the subject is.  Behind, hiding in the shadows of this phallic symbol of masculinity sits two important parts of the genitalia, the testicles.  The testes are adorned with a variety of affectionate names, including crown jewels, gonads, nuts and balls, to name but a few and “to have balls,” is a saying that describes courage within an image of maleness which identifies the testicles as an important factor within masculinity and reproduction.  During puberty the journey taking place from boy to man their is significant focus on the balls dropping, the saying “have your balls dropped’ referring to the deepening of a boys voice and therefore starting his transition into manhood, developing his masculinity.  This acquisition of new found maleness can come into question during development and a good example of questioning ones masculinity is to comment on a male’s testes, a song from during the war and still sung to this day that epitomises this is

Hitler has only got one ball,
Goering has two, but very small;
Himmler is very sim’lar,
And Goebbels has no balls at all.

The image of masculinity therefore would appear reliant, not only on the size of ones penis but the possession of testicles and to “have balls”.

The demand of this qualification is apparent within the depiction of maleness especially through the aspirational masculinity, the hegemonic one.  Hegemonic masculinity is briefly defined as white, heterosexual and middle class and through this research project I aim to uncover its relevance within society and how this masculinity, that aims to shape the male population requires that you ‘have balls’.  Alongside this gallant display of bravery and courage we are presented with a variety of other hegemonic characteristics such as aggression, competition, heterosexism, homophobia, misogyny and stoicism.  These masculine features are generally to ensure the marginalisation and subordination of other masculinities and femininity although the one trait that seems to damage itself is stoicism.  Through this research project, I aim to understand how stoicism, roughly translated as long suffering, has an adverse effect on health and masculinity itself.

Whilst it is understood that masculinity is produced by the testicles which secrete the steroid hormone, testosterone, which in turn is responsible for genetic masculinity,  testicular cancer has increased dramatically over the last twenty years, and continues to increase accounting for

“13% of deaths of the age group between 20 and 34”, could stoicism, a masculine trait be responsible for the rise?

With this imminent threat to masculinity I hope to unearth through this research project the relationship between masculinity and the testes and understand whether, masculinity is created by the testes or manufactured by society and why men tend to overlook their ‘balls’ and create a successful campaign to highlight the affects of testicular cancer, creating awareness of this disease.

Aims and Objectives

Through this research project, I aim to

  • Understand the functionality of the testes and their importance in
  • The construction of masculinity
  • Their significance in bravery and stoicism
  • In addition to this I also aim to:
  • Determine the masculine role and how it develops.
  • Understand hegemonic masculinity and its necessity in modern culture.
  • Research stoicism and establish how it shapes masculinity.
  • Understand what testicular cancer is and its effects on masculinity.
  • Create an effective campaign highlighting the issue of testicular cancer.

What’s in the sac?

Foetal development is an ambiguous beginning, where for the first six weeks the foetus has no determined sex.  Therefore the journey into becoming male is an arduous task which begins in the sixth week of conception where the gonads, special sex cells which are set aside from other cells, bombard the foetus with androgens.  The major androgen in the male foetus is testosterone, a steroid hormone which is key to the development of a male foetus.  Although both sexes produce testosterone the male sex is determined by the production of 6 to 8 mg, compared to 0.5 mg in the female.  This secretion from the gonads ensures the development of the male genitalia, the future reproductive organs, which foresees the asexual gonads develop into testes, making the testes central to the development of the male gender.  Comparatively the gonads transform into the ovaries in a female.

Developing within the abdominal cavity, the testes are two egg shaped glands that continue to secrete 95% of the steroid, testosterone, the other 5% is generated by the adrenal cortex.  The primary role of testosterone is the responsibility for the initial sex characteristics, genitalia, which at week nine of foetal development is identifiable as the phallus and labiscrotal area.  Through the continuing influence of testosterone, the labiscrotal area fuses to form the scrotum, the sac where the testes will eventually take their place.  The phallus continues to develop and enlarge, evolving into the penis and during the eighth or ninth month of development, usually prior to birth the testes descend from the abdominal cavity into the scrotum.  This descent is crucial to the future health of the male as if this does not take place, known as cryptorchidism, which accounts for 1 percent of all male births, there may be a greater chance that the subject would become infertile or inherit testicular cancer.  To prevent these illnesses the child would undergo an operation called Orchiopexy, between the age of 6 to 12 months, where two incisions are made to bring the testes down into the scrotum as they need to be kept cooler than the body temperature to function properly.  Testosterone continues to produce for a short while after birth into early childhood where it nearly ceases yet the development into becoming masculine starts a new phase, social imprinting.

Nature Nurture

The development into becoming masculine continues from birth and as Carver discusses the roles of men and women she states how “men are not born, they are made”.  This said, although the testicles are at the centre of genetic masculinity and determine the sex and masculine characteristics, it is not their sole responsibility for the development into this gender identity.  We have to look outside this natural process into the more influential nurturing process.  This initial process is the relationship between the infant and his parents and through considering Freud’s theories I aim to understand the effects of nurture. Sigmund Freud, regarded “as one of the most influential and authoritative thinkers of the twentieth century”, also known as the father of psychoanalysis, was born in Frieberg, Moravia in 1856 although is generally associated with the city of Vienna where from the age of 4 he spent the majority of his life.  Along with this infamous title, Freud was also a physiologist, medical doctor and psychologist, although he is most famous for his liberal views and psychoanalysis regarding infantile psychosexual analysis for which he believed to be the cause of hysteria in patients later in adult life.  The Oedipus complex is probably the most controversial theory focusing on the sexual desire of an infant for which Freud was ridiculed.  This theory analyses how the infant, driven by nature is moulded through the nurture of the parents ensuring acceptability within society.

Inspired by the play written by Sophocles, ‘Oedipus Rex’, is the story of Oedipus, who according to prophecy was destined to sleep with his mother and kill his father.  The son of Laius and Jocasta, king and queen of Thebes, Oedipus, was exiled from Thebes and left to die on a mountain, after his parents learned of the Oracle of Delphi’s prediction.  Oedipus was found by a shepherd and taken to Corinth where he was adopted by the king and queen.  Oedipus grew into a princely young man only in later years to hear the resounding oracle’s prophecy.  Not knowing he was adopted and fearing his fate, he left his loving family and ventured out into the world.  Arriving at a crossroads faced with the directions Delphi, Daulis or Thebes, Oedipus chose Thebes.  Confronted on his journey by the king Laius (his father) and his entourage they argue and Oedipus kills Laius, continuing his journey to Thebes.  Arriving there, Oedipus is congratulated for ending the curse predicted by the oracle and was subsequently crowned king and married Jocasta (his mother).  Oedipus then learns that while attempting through a variety of methods to dispel the prophecy and escape his fate he has unwittingly fulfilled his predicted destiny in the process.  Oedipus, horrified by his actions blinds himself, stabbing his eyes with Jocasta’s, (his wife’s, mother’s) brooch, exiling himself from Thebes as punishment for killing his father.

Oedipus’ fate was predetermined and although all attempts were made to avoid this, nature took its course and Freud cleverly uses this analogy and Sophocles’ play to explain the Oedipus complex, through five stages of infantile psychosexual behaviour which are key to the development of a child’s sexual development and social integration.  Each stage is not without consequence and can affect the individual greatly in adult life if not successfully transcended or the child becomes fixated within any of the stages.

The first stage of a child’s personality is called the Id which seeks only to receive pleasure and avoid pain., based on the pleasure principal, it is called the Oral phase where the new born infant explores through the sucking and placing things in its mouth.    Through this sensation of oral gratification the child forms its first attachment with its mother where his desire is to seek his mothers affection, sucking on her breast continually without the knowledge of what his body requires, such as sustenance and nutrients.  This somewhat exhausting behaviour is done only for pleasure spurred by the natural desire of gratification as when the breast is removed the child continues to seek pleasure from his thumb a pastime that many foeti partook during development in the womb.  This is clearly a pleasurable act seeking gratification as the child has not been exposed to the breast and so is naturally acting out the pleasure principle within the womb.  Some parents see it unfit for a child to be in possession of a dummy or to suck their thumb and deny their child such pleasure.  Consequences of fixating on this phase in later life can be identified through people who are dependent, smokers, nail biters and people who overly indulge in oral sex.

From the age of around 2 to 4 years the child goes into what Freud refers to as the Anal phase and he interprets the anus as a displaced mouth.  During this period the child, through defecation, either in the form of retention or expulsion, gains pleasure from the fact they have created something.  Undergoing toilet training during this age the child must learn that it is not acceptable to let their bowel movements control them.  This is a difficult task to get the child to accept responsibility for their actions from which they must learn the consequences and that it is not socially acceptable to continue to defecate inside ones nappy and they enter the reality principal.  Fixating on this phase the child can become anally retentive becoming tight with money, overly tidy and organised, being subservient to authority or the other extreme, anally expulsive, where the adult is messy in nature, hopeless with finances, disorganised and hostile.   During this period the child also learns the art of scopophilia, understanding that not only can pleasure be derived from the active looking but also from the passive, being looked at.  This can be translated into adult form as “masculine voyeurism and feminine exhibitionism.”   

The third stage, occurring through the age of 4 and 7 the child enters the Phallic phase where gratification is now achieved through the retention and expulsion of urine.  Between the age of 5 and 6 boys are particularly interested in bodily functions and they indulge in childish masturbation.  Fuelled by the desire for the the mother, the primary source of sexual pleasure and fixation, who has nursed them and ensured toilet training during the Oral and Anal phases, as such the boy can become fearful of his desires to replace the father and possess his mother.  This is where the child has an increase in self perception, which Freud calls the Ego and Leah explains it as “the primal human desire for sexual and violent gratification” which are character traits ingrained within masculinity.  This is the key stage of the Oedipus complex as the anxiety is aggravated by “the threats and discipline he incurs when caught masturbating by his parents.”  Noticing his mother (nor women) does not have a penis the boy fears the threat of castration from his father.   The castration complex according to Freud is something a boy fears from his father from early childhood.  This image of emasculation instils fear throughout infancy and into his adult life and realising that the child cannot possess his mother as his father does the child identifies with the father on whom he models himself, becoming as much like him as possible, preparing himself for his later sexual role.  Another way of the child to deal with this complex issue is for the boy to adopt a female persona where he becomes attracted to the father thus forming a homosexual desire to replace the mother.

The Latency stage which takes place during the years, 7 and 12, sees the acquisition of a heavyweight conscience where the child learns of what Freud describes as the Super Ego which Leah explains as “society-imposed morality”.  During this period, which is heavily influenced by school life, should the boy resolve the Oedipus complex, as he is no longer driven by sexual needs.  This is the time where the child learns how to love and also the consequence of what it is to suffer loss and this is made apparent through friendships made and broken during the time at school.  It is during this period that more social, competitive activities are prevalent and the boy can acquire same sex friends as he is not spurred by sexual desires as these feelings lay dormant at this time only to be rekindled in the final phase.

Entering the teenage years and the final chapter in Freud’s psychosexual theory is the Genital stage.  It is this phase where we see the completion of natures desire to procreate.  We must also realise that alongside Freud’s theory, the re-emergence of the steroid hormone testosterone enters into its secondary role.  The testes begin to secrete the primary androgen and during this phase in puberty we see that the boy acquires more masculine features as the  bodies natural injection of the steroid hormone, testosterone increases skeletal growth and muscle mass.  The boys voice becomes deeper owing to the enlargement of the larynx creating what is more commonly known as the ‘Adam’s apple’.  This obvious transformation from boy to man is subject to jovial taunts with the usual question, “have your balls dropped?” questioning the boys journey into maleness.  This is in essence a myth, as established earlier the testes descend within the eighth or ninth month into the scrotum.  The body also starts to grow hair and definite development in size of the genitals, combined with increased sexual drive.  It is safe to say that the testosterone, produced by the testes is central to the development of masculinity and its features.

Alongside the secretion of testosterone the testes begin to produce sperm, an essential part of human development and essential for procreation.  The genitals are now complete, they have evolved into the reproductive organs able to ensure the future of the human race.

Entering back into Freud’s theory, sexual desire and libido is rekindled by puberty and the boy seeks out a sexual partner for mutual sexual pleasure and the natural desire of the human species to procreate.  This phase is crucial to personal development as if the child has successfully reached this point without fixating on any previous stage he can break away from the relationship with his parents and is able to form new relationships outside of the family.  If fixated, the child will suffer with his development and be troubled by repression especially if the Oedipus conflict is left unresolved.

Transferring Freud’s 19th century analysis into modern day is successfully achieved through Erik Erikson’s recognised interpretation of Freud’s psychosexual into psychosocial.  The stages have been broken down into the following layman’s terms.

  • Oral trust versus mistrust
  • Anal autonomy versus shame/doubt
  • Phallic initiative versus guilt
  • Latency industry versus inferiority
  • Genital identity versus role confusion

As in Freud’s day, culture was unable to deal with the suggestion that a child was a sexual being, which still rings true today as stated within my previous research, “Identity” which discusses the portrayal of children as sexual objects, Erikson’s theory however concentrates on the feelings of the child in a social sense rather than the sexual negotiation of the Oedipal complex.

Alongside these analyses it is necessary to consider the archetypal theories of Freud’s associate and protégé Carl Jung.

Carl Gustav Jung, born July 26, 1875 in Kessewil, Switzerland initially trained in the field of archaeology.  Progressing into medicine, Jung began to work under supervision of famous neurologist, Krafft-Ebing.  Inspired by this interest Jung embarked on a career in psychiatry, specialising in schizophrenia.  Jung met Freud in Vienna in 1907 where as according to Boeree

“that after they met, Freud cancelled all his appointments for the day, and they talked for 13 hours straight, such was the impact of the meeting of these two great minds! Freud eventually came to see Jung as the crown prince of psychoanalysis and his heir apparent.”

Jung’s theories divide the psyche, the human mind, into three parts, namely the Ego, Personal Unconscious and Collective Unconscious.  The Ego, unlike Freud’s Ego, is what Jung refers to as the conscious mind, readily accessible.  Personal Unconscious is closely related to the conscious mind yet its contents are not as readily available.  These are usually in the form of memories or have been purposely suppressed for some psychological reason.  It is this final part, the Collective Unconscious which differentiates Jung’s work from that of any other.  This area of the psyche hosts the knowledge of what we as a species are born with yet as human beings we are never directly in contact with it.  It is this area that Jung’s archetypes take shape.

There are a variety of archetypes which manifest in the Collective Unconscious.  The Shadow is comparative with Freud’s Ego, and is a dark place where life’s primeval instincts are kept.  This represents the human beings animal behaviour which seeks only to survive and procreate.  It is an innocent archetype that is reflective of the human before they became self conscious.  The Persona reflects the presented image, whose name is Latin for mask.  This is the projected idea to usually create a good impression, although this manipulative behaviour can have a negative response as this does not show a persons true character.  The key archetypes relevant to this research project are the Anima, the female collective conscious of the man which is usually represented by the spontaneous, intuitive character of a young girl and the male consciousness of woman, the Animus, which is usually depicted as the image of a wise old man, being rational, logical having a tendency to argue.  According to Boeree, Freud, Adler and Jung and many others “felt that we are all really bisexual in nature” as we are without sex during the first six weeks of conception he also states “when we begin our social lives as infants, we are neither male nor female in the social sense.”

 

Masculinity

 

From  their early childhood, boys are aware of their genitals. They are told their penis and testicles are what makes them a boy, and eventually a man. Their genitals are at the centre of their masculinity.”

Understanding then that the Freudian and Jungian theories explain our species natural development, that is conditioned by the societised parental role, to nurture the child into social acceptance, we must acknowledge the further impact on masculinity, namely social integration.  Nakagawa highlights this when he states that “boys are not necessarily “masculine” when they are born but they will (…) grow to be “real men” in the process of learning “masculinity” which is determined by the society.”  My research into this gender identity uncovered that half of the men questioned believed they were born masculine and grew to be a man which is predetermined genetically, yet Gill’s research into masculinity found that it was a “process of osmosis” which is defined as the gradual or unconscious assimilation of ideas, this infers that men unknowingly absorb their masculine identity through social engagements yet the majority of my respondents, 71 per cent, have knowledge of this or rather they accept that this is the case, although 29 per cent believe they were taught and this information is reflected in the Research Data and Analysis section,

Schoenberg emphasises the positive and negative aspects of this when he states “In each developmental state the individual has to learn, as well as to process. A complication is that one can learn without understanding the process, and conversely one can experience the process and not learn.”

The imprinting then, of masculinity as a gender identity begins initially through clothing and the acceptance that boys wear blue and girls, pink.  Here begins the cultural acceptance of a child into society.  Stets and Burke explain that masculinity and femininity “are rooted in the social (one’s gender) rather than the biological (one’s sex)” and Connell defines that it “ is simultaneously a place in gender relations, the practices through which men and women engage that place in gender, and the effects of these practices in bodily experience, personality and culture”.  This said the term masculinity is given to a male although is not exclusively ‘male’ as this gender identity can be adopted by females too as so can femininity in men.

Masculinity however is said to be in a crisis and Philips discusses that “modern and postmodern scholars are addressing the crisis in masculinity by questioning the meaning of masculinity and by rethinking masculinity, male development, gender, and identity.”  It is thought that masculinity had a firm identity two decades ago with a shared view, something to aspire to, yet recent developments within culture have created conflict within this agreed definition.  Determining then that masculinity manifests itself over many levels and being multifaceted it would be impossible to pinpoint the vast array of male difference, however my research project aims to understand the basics of masculinity and the stereotypical traits of this gender identity.  Considine discusses the crisis within masculinity, referring to the current media images of wimps, geeks, unintelligence, weak, subordinate men, compared with the masculine images of over a decade ago with the super hero style Milk Tray man and the rugged Marlboro man.

The image of masculinity has now become a fashion statement, a trend, a packaged identity that is predicted and promoted by advertising agencies like J. Walter Thompson, the “modern world’s oldest advertising agency and 4th largest” who forecast the rise of the “metrosexual”.

Coined by “Mark Simpson in 1994” the “metrosexual” is an image that blurs the boundaries of masculinity and femininity.  Possessing a narcissistic personality, the metrosexual has a disposable income which is used to ensure he looks good.  Investing in face creams and hair straighteners this image of masculinity conflicts the normative heterosexual image of man.  A prime example of this image is David Beckham, described by Oliffe as “the peroxide pony-tailed, athletic, (…) is conceivably a contemporary exemplar of hegemonic masculinity for many young men. He is successful, powerful and self-reliant; as a player and celebrity he threatens to be bigger than the game of soccer itself.” thus confirming the conflicting image within this crisis.

Understanding then there are many masculinities, as there are types of man, is it necessary to have a singular monolithic image of masculinity?  The masculinity accepted above all, used as a measuring tool to determine just how masculine, is “hegemonic masculinity”.

As with masculinity, hegemonic masculinity too manifests itself on various levels, and is contrary to the dominant ideology of the time to be able to justify and defend the current  social system ensuring men hold the power and from which, women are excluded.  Changing over time, as so does society and popular belief, the general accepted idea within Western culture is that, hegemonic masculinity refers to the white middle / upper class heterosexual male, Phillips refers to “Erik Erikson’s  model of psychosocial human development for its historical and cultural embeddedness in discourses constructing a white, heterosexual, able-bodied, middle class masculinity norm.”  It is this constructed image of masculinity that reaps the rewards, compared to other deviant masculinities and femininity ensuring the dominant position of the normative male.

As this image of masculinity is deemed more acceptable than its counterparts, this constructed identity is used as a measure to determine just how masculine one is through as Jewitt describes “hegemonic masculinity prescribes endless and exacting requirements on men.”   Chafetz describes seven traits of masculinity

  1. Physical–virile, athletic, strong, brave. Unconcerned about appearance and ageing;
  2. Functional–breadwinner, provider;
  3. Sexual–sexually aggressive, experienced. Single status acceptable;
  4. Emotional–unemotional, stoic;
  5. Intellectual–logical, intellectual, rational, objective, practical,
  6. Interpersonal–leader, dominating; disciplinarian; independent, individualistic (applies to western societies);
  7. Other Personal Characteristics–success-orientated, ambitious; proud, egotistical, moral, trustworthy; decisive, competitive, uninhibited, adventurous.

Wall and Kristjanson in their research determine these following characteristics are stereotypical of hegemonic masculinity.

  • Restricted experience and expression of emotion
  • No emotional sensitivity
  • Toughness and violence
  • Powerful and successful
  • Self-sufficient (no needs)
  • Stoicism
  • Being a stud (heterosexism)
  • Misogyny

Contrasting the traits between these somewhat similar identities, the hegemonic masculinity pays no reference to the inclusion of women or provision for a family.  Although these characters possess a lack of emotion and dependency they both seek out success and power through domination and violence.

Culturally these ideas of masculinity are set out and Schoenberg infers that the “rules are more rigid” for men and boys which are transmitted by “institutions such as religion or the educational system”, according to Stets and Burke.  Primarily the major aspect of masculine socialisation for a male, is school where normative masculinity has been institutionalised.  It is here where they begin to establish their culturally assigned role alongside their peers.  Within western civilisation it is accepted that males should traditionally be brave, unemotional, strong, dominant, athletic, rational, ambitious, competitive, aggressive and violent and it is in the playground these traits are acted out through races, fighting, bullying, sports, especially football and re-enacting fight scenes or such like and an interest in gore.  It is this jungle, males find their roles through trying out these attitudes and behaviours although not all conform to this typified ideal.  The non conformists would be identified as wimps or homosexual for not being macho.  Their role is identified as a subordinate, deviant masculinity.  My previous research into aspects of bullying uncover these playground games and taunts and whilst fitting into that role myself, I recall being taken aside and into the headmaster’s office to discuss the problem of being bullied.  To resolve the problem he instructed me to walk slower, larger strides, not small, fast steps as I needed to look more masculine in order not to be bullied and as I had not learned, I needed to be ‘educated’ how to behave.  Another aspect of not appearing to be masculine, is being good at ones studies, which ended in another approach where I had to be put on ‘report’.  This was to suggest the appearance I had been ‘naughty’ as naughty boys were seen to be more masculine.

Duncan highlights this when referring to ”Mac An Ghaill’s “macho lads” who rejoiced in a stereotypical hegemonic masculinity that rejected academia in favour of being tough, which involved “fighting, fucking (females) and football”. Understanding the structure of school life it appears that hegemonic masculinity is rife and these violent, sexual, competitive traits are widely accepted and somewhat encouraged.

Subconsciously then, if adhered to all the rules set out by society, the journey into becoming an adult male could see his masculine role develop even further.  His character traits expand to cover the normative heterosexual masculine roles such as sexually aggressive, single, virile, success driven, or the more family orientated bread winner, provider, disciplinarian, male, a superhuman who must be a rock and appear invincible, never ill or phased by anything.

I’m not ill!

Appearing invincible and superhuman is a façade that has stood the test of time.  Entering the days of Greek philosophy we can find its historical roots and its placement within society through the teachings of Stoicism.

Stoicism, a way of life that was created by Zeno of Citium (335–263BC) during the third century BC in Athens, acquired its name from the stoic pile, a painted collonade or porch, from where it was delivered.  Initially a Greek way of life the doctrine made its way to Rome in the first century BC continuing into the first century AD where it became a manual for the bourgeois and upper classes of the Roman Empire.  Stoicism was as Blackburn describes a “unified logical, physical, and moral philosophy”.  This philosophy was based on the ‘Logos’ a view that Livingstone states as “a form of materialistic pantheism” that identifies God with the universe.   Understanding then that the ‘Logos’ is at the centre of everything, the Stoics lived within the harmony of nature.  Using this as their inspiration, these philosophers believed that nature, according to King who quotes the Roman Stoic, Cicero,

“Nature, (…) has constructed the body so that the most honourable parts are the most visible. Sane people mirror Nature’s wisdom in keeping out of sight the parts Nature has hidden away, and in performing bodily functions in private. Moving too slowly is seen as effeminate: hurrying around makes someone out of breath, thus distorting the face. Anger, pleasure, and fear equally transform the faces, voices, and gestures of those experiencing them: the ideal is to control the body, avoid excessive gestures, and follow a moderate way of life.”

Stoics then conducted themselves in such a manner that refused the importance of bodily functions.  This was also true of emotions making the Stoic a ‘super human’ who appeared to have no faults and as Blackburn describes, “It is an ethic of self-sufficient, benevolent calm, with the virtuous peace of the wise man rendering him indifferent to poverty, pain, and death, so resembling the spiritual peace of God.”  Virtue was said to be the only thing required by a Stoic as a virtuous man is considered to be morally good reflecting the ‘Logos’.  This way of life was as again King quotes Cicero “that both the mind and the body should be trained from childhood into moderate and appropriate behaviour, and this should be expressed through every action — there being a seemly way to stand, walk, or sit.”  This affirms that, as Carver states, “men are not born, they are made”.

The Stoic philosophy died out in the first century AD but the use of the word ‘Logos’ didn’t and was used by John the Apostle in his account of Jesus.

“In the beginning was the Logos, and the Logos was with God, and the Logos was God. He was in the beginning with God; all things were made through Him, and without Him was not anything made that was made. In Him was life, and the life was the light of men … And the Logos became flesh and dwelt among us, full of grace and truth; we have beheld His glory, glory as of the only Son from The Father.” (John 1:1-4,14 RSV)

This passage describes Jesus as the centre of everything which as we know is the foundation of Christianity.  Within the bible are various accounts which make reference to the ‘virtuous man’.  Virtue was seen as the only requirement for a Stoic, and the bible describes

“a virtuous man is a man of great moral strength, in whom wickedness is not found.  He is a godly, God-fearing man.”  As Christianity has dominated western culture since its initial conception, projecting the institutionalised hegemonic image, it would infer that virtue has been adopted and transferred into the required, expected behaviour within masculinity along with the Stoical denial of bodily functions and emotions.

This stoical image of masculinity in modern culture can be translated as the acquisition of the ‘stiff upper lip’, suppressing the display of any emotion Furnham explains “the denial and suppression of emotion is at the heart of the modern concept of stoicism and fortitude”.  This behaviour is transferred from the father to the son, as Cicero did, by stern unemotional delivery of lectures such as “boys don’t cry” or “don’t be such a big girl’s blouse” insinuating that to show emotion is to be seen as feminine, an undesirable quality reaffirming the hegemonic ideology of misogyny (hatred of  women) and homophobia (femininity in men).  Research performed by  Dr Patricia McGrath of the Child Health Research Institute in London uncovered that children gauge how to deal with pain and suffering through the response of their parents.  McGrath states

“Children look to their parents for how to respond to bumps and scrapes, the more a child is taught not to show pain, the less likely they are to show it”.  It is this stoic transference that can manifest itself, causing physical and psychological problems throughout life.  Unable to express their emotions and denying their body becomes ill, from the ingrained psychological effects from childhood, men become long suffering and endure the illness or problem behind this stoical front, the expected image of masculinity.

Evidencing this Dobson states “Masculinity, already said to be in crisis, has now been classed as a disease.”  His article discusses the findings of academics from universities in Leeds, Vienna, and Ottawa and the World Health Organisation who spent a year looking at data on nearly 200 million men in 17 countries across the developed world, including the UK.  Extracting the information Dobson quotes

“Men are twice as likely to die early as women, are more prone to cancer and are more liable to be killed by heart disease, strokes, infections and congenital conditions. Men are also more at risk of mental illness, skin, blood and digestive diseases; and more likely to be killed in accidents and car crashes, and to die by suicide.”

It is the masculine traits, such as risk taking, competitiveness and the inability to display emotion through childhood conditioning that men suffer in this way.  The report also discusses that ethnographically the amount of single men or who live alone has risen, owing to an increase in divorce and separations in comparison to those with a partner.  This suggests unbiasedly that women care for men better than men do themselves. Hicks confirms this when he states

“Some men leave it to their partners to take the responsibility.“ Another concern highlighted in the report is that men “delay in seeking help” .

This delay was also reflected in a study carried out by the Men’s Health Forum .  Focusing on around 400 men, the report found the attitude to illness was to ”tough it out’” as being seen to be ill equated to weakness, conflicting with the image of masculinity.  Work was also given priority over health with which there was a definite inability within men to discuss problems with their colleagues.  Chapple and Zeibland found that men “hid the fact that they were ill from their colleagues at work” this reaffirms that men cannot be seen as weak or ill in order to retain their super human image.  All these aspects validate the stoic façade seemingly required by the masculine image.  Messner clarifies this view when he states, “Men tend to pay heavy costs — in the form of shallow relationships, poor health, and early death — for conformity with the narrow definitions of masculinity that promise to bring them status and privilege.” 

Quoting Dr Alan White, Dobson writes “Being a man is like having a terminal disease that will prematurely end your life, (…) fifty per cent of men are dead by the time they are 75, (…) but we should not see it as being hopeless. We need to make sure that there are changes so that men’s health improves.” 

A change that needs to be improved is the relationship between men and their testicles as this project aims to uncover the reasons why men delay, ignore or blatantly don’t check their testicles for signs of infection.

Testicular cancer

There are currently over 200 cancers because, according to Cancer Research UK, there are the same amount of differing types of body cells and over 60 different organs where this killer takes place.  One organ, or rather two, where suffering seems to be on the rise, according to

“Everyman”, is testicular cancer, which has increased by a staggering 400 percent in the last 50 years, “the reasons for this are not yet known”.  This type accounts for 1 percent of all male cancers and with this rate of increase it is set to become a more predominant form.  There are currently a reported new 1900 cases a year in the UK, of which England has 1541.  Occurring from birth at any age, although rare above the age of 55, accounting for 8 per cent of all cases, the cancer then is more predominant between the ages of 15 to 45 and half of all occurrences are below the age of 35.  It is around this age group that the illness has its most sufferers around what most people would see as their prime.

Cancer is a disease created by the abnormal functioning of cells.  These cells reproduce and the uncontrollable development creates a lump, generally referred to as a tumour.

Testicular cancer manifests itself in two different forms seminomas and non-seminomas.  A third of all testicular cancers are seminomas which emerge from immature germ cells and commonly effect the 25 to 55 age group.  The remainder are non-seminomas which develop from mature germ cells and effect the 15 to 35 age group.  Germ cells are created in the testes and ovaries and during foetal development these germ cells are left around other parts of the body.  These cells are invariably harmless but may become cancerous and are usually diagnosed around the mediastinum, the area between the lungs and heart.  Theses cells when cancerous are still known to be testicular or ovarian cancer even though they have spread to other major organs and a common occurrence with fourth stage testicular cancer is the appearance of cancer within the lung.

The disease is foremost apparent in white, Caucasian males, especially, according to Cancer Research UK, “those from higher-income backgrounds,are more likely to develop testicular cancer than black or Asian men.”  This said, “Black men have a 50 percent greater chance of getting prostate cancer than whites and are twice as likely to die from it.”

Cryptochidism, undescended testicles, as discussed in ‘What’s in the sac?’ increase the risk of contracting the disease between 5 and 10 per cent and research confirms that 10 per cent of testicular cancer sufferers were born with this condition.  This leaves 90 per cent unexplained although family history is also a strong element as brothers, or fathers who have suffered with this form of cancer, the risks of contracting are increased by 10 fold.  This suggests that testicular cancer is genetic, contracted through inherent factors.  Although doctors are currently unable to detect the causes of testicular cancer and are currently unaware, researchers

“are looking for additional tumour markers that may be present in abnormal amounts in the blood or urine of a person with very early testicular cancer.”  This is in the hope of detecting the disease before any symptoms take place.  Other than the corrective surgery Orchiopexy, to bring down the testicles, there is currently nothing people can do to prevent testicular cancer, recommendations for regular exercise and a healthy diet are suggested to prevent although this is suggested across the board to prevent a variety of disease and is clearly not testicular cancer-specific.

Prevention and diagnosis

Although there is no real way to prevent the illness, men are recommended to check their testicles at least once a month, this procedure should begin at puberty in order to establish what is ‘normal’.  The process is to examine the testes after a warm bath or shower when the scrotum is relaxed,  holding the sac in the palm, the testicles should be examined between the thumb and fingers.  Exploring the centre of genetic masculinity, it should be normal to find that one testicle is slightly larger than the other and hangs slightly lower, which is usually the left, as McManus states is depicted in most Greek sculptures.  Alongside this normality the epididymis should also seem apparent.  This is where sperm is stored and should not be confused for a lump.  Comparing testicles, recognising their natural status each should seem pretty similar.  In around 90 per cent of testicular cancer cases, their is a recognisable lump, a tumour, this only appears in one testicle and very rare to appear in both, so a comparison can be drawn assuming both testicles are present.  There are other symptoms that occur with this disease.  An unnatural enlargement of the testicle, a dull ache in the abdomen or groin, sudden collection of fluid in the scrotum, growth or tenderness of the upper chest, or a feeling of heaviness in the scrotum.  This last example is sometimes confused with the

“blue balls of love”, which is where sexual intercourse has climaxed without ejaculation and semen has built up.  This is usually remedied by masturbation although any of these signs should be carefully considered and if unsure, immediate visit to the general practitioner (GP) is urged.

As discussed earlier in ‘I’m not ill’, men have real issues with displaying emotion, signs of weakness and appearing to be ill in order to appear to be masculine.  It is also known that men visit the doctors as, Jones states “simply because his female partner has noticed a new and abnormal swelling on a testicle that otherwise he might not have bothered about.”  Knowing then that there is an increasing amount of single men who are becoming ever more self reliant and diagnose their own illnesses they are unlikely to discuss testicular cancer with friends, according to a report by Mintel, Men’s Changing Lifestyles – UK – June 2005, it would seem their very essence of masculinity is at risk,  A great deal of research has been produced regarding men’s lack of attendance at the doctor’s surgery and it has been found by Chapple et al “that the presence of symptoms is not always sufficient for people to define themselves as sick”.  The research also establishes that men delayed the visit to their GP  as they did not want to seem like a hypochondriac, comparing themselves to Freud’s discovery of hysteria in women, and that it was important to retain their masculine image and continue by quoting the men “in their words, ‘men don’t cry’”  reaffirming the stoic masculine message imprinted from a young child.  Another reason for men to delay their visit within the report was the fear of exposing their penis, men were worried that the size of their manhood was not up to scratch.  Men’s relationship with their testicles can also have an effect as it is quite a distant one and that the penis is presumed more important.  This is because the testicles hang in the shadow of the penis, the object which men pay more attention to, gaining pleasure from, a reality which we are initially programmed to receive as Freud explains during the Id period where the body seeks pleasure and avoids pain, and the testicles are often associated with pain through sports injury or being hit in the scrotum. Another factor is fear of the outcome, and on discussion with a

22 year old who found a lump, delayed contacting a medical professional for over a year.  Scoring 17 on the masculinity questionnaire in ‘Data Collection and Analysis’ the young male describes how he felt his masculinity was affected at the time, and how he hoped the lump would go away.  This fear was also described by another respondent who said if he found a lump he would prolong the visit to the doctors  “till scared”.

This risk in delay prevents diagnosis by the doctor preventing early access to treatment.  Once at the surgery the doctor will examine the scrotum to determine the size of the swelling and its tenderness.  It is generally very difficult for the doctor to determine whether the lump is cancerous according to Cancer Research UK.  It is also understood through their research findings that less than 4 out of 100 testicular lumps are found to be cancerous.  In most cases the lumps turn out to be a cyst which the doctor identifies by trying to shine a light through.  Owing to these other testicular ailments the doctor may suggest an ultrasound, necessary for seminomas, which is a harmless process.  Chapple et al’s research indicated that this referral also created a delay in treatment as these “examinations can take weeks or even months” as the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence recommends that particular symptoms should be referred and seen by a specialist within two weeks.

Swelling or lump in the testicle is the only symptom that the recent NICE guidelines have outlined as needing urgent referral for possible testicular cancer.”  The specialist would take a blood sample in order to identify any markers.  Markers are proteins found only in non-seminomas which are helpful in the diagnosis,

“these are alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), human chorionic gonadtrophin (HCG and lactic dehydrogenase (LDH).”  From the results the specialist will be able to determine whether testicular cancer is present if there is any abnormal readings and determine if any the stage of the cancer.   Specialists will not perform a biopsy in fear that if the tumour is malignant the cancer may spread.  Understanding this the sooner detected the less chance of morbidity and prevention of the cancer developing further.

Testicular cancer is staged in four parts

Stage 1. Cancer contained in testicle.

Stage 2. Cancer has spread from the testicle to the body to the epididymis and may have spread to the inner layer of the membrane surrounding the testicle and a small tumour.  The cancer may have been present in another part of the body, but not a major organ.

Stage 3. Cancer is anywhere within the testicle, spermatic cord, or scrotum; and has spread to a major organ i.e. liver, brain, and kidney.

Stage 4. The cancer is anywhere within the testicle, spermatic cord, or scrotum and has spread to the lungs.

The treatment for testicular cancer is usually orchidectomy, the surgical removal of a testicle, as the specialist or surgeon cannot determine cancer from a biopsy, this will be followed by a course of chemotherapy.  Depending on the stage of the cancer, there may be the need to remove the spermatic cord which will leave the sac feeling quite empty.  If the cancer has spread to major organs, usually the lungs, the cancer will still be known as testicular cancer owing to the connective germ cells and will be treated similarly with a course of chemotherapy or radiology.  The success rate of treatment at stage one is 90 per cent decreasing to 80 per cent for stage three and 50 per cent at stage four.

A question most men after treatment for this disease is  “ 

Will I lose my masculinity?” this concern is like closing the stable door when the horse has already bolted, as established the testicles are at the centre of genetic masculinity, producing the primary androgen, testosterone, responsible for masculinity, it would seem men believe they are born masculine rather than made.  It is possible however for one testicle to produce enough testosterone to ensure masculinity and enough sperm to procreate.  In severe cases the remaining testicle may suffer damage which will require replacement testosterone therapy to maintain masculinity, Giroux discusses the complications of this which is represented in the film, Fight Club.  His article discusses male violence and patriarchy, and draws upon the representation of ‘Bob’ a character who has suffered from testicular cancer who embarks on hormone therapy.  It is within a scene constructed in a testicular cancer support group called

“Remaining Men Together”  that the character comes into play, where we are introduced to the image of a  once masculine body builder who has suffered complications with hormone therapy and has grown breasts.

“Bob becomes a not too subtle symbol in the film, personifying how masculinity is both degraded (he has breasts like a woman) and used in a culture that relies upon the “feminine” qualities of support and empathy rather than ‘masculine’ attributes of strength and virility to bring men together.” 

Another concern after orchidectomy is body image as the scrotum can seem empty and the offer of a prosthesis can be offered to relieve psychological issues.   Chapple and McPherson’s research into prosthesis found that men were upset that they weren’t consulted about size and shape.  Their report also uncovered that men in a stable relationship were less concerned about their appearance than single men, who felt it could be a problem for future relationships, yet my investigation uncovered that men 21 per cent of  the respondents, who were in stable relationships were inclined to undergo the operation to have a prosthesis fitted and 36 per cent who were all single would refuse the operation, this result somewhat contradicts their findings and although my research is valid it is not the opinion of sufferers from testicular cancer and can only be approached from a “what if?” point of view.

Chapple and Ziebland found that younger men were unconcerned about the effects of testicular cancer on their masculinity, which my research confirms, and in a recent conversation with a 23 year old male who postponed his visit to the doctors for a year whilst finding a lump, knew he was able to reproduce with one testicle and was unconcerned about the imminent loss, which also reaffirms their findings.

They also discovered that men “were able to perform their male roles” and it is thought that “men who had been treated for testicular cancer could resume sexual activities once they had recovered from surgery or chemotherapy, and treatment left no long-term visible traces.” but research performed by Pool discovered that initially 10 per cent of men suffered from sexual dysfunction which lead to 40 per cent in the long term and that men suffered from ejaculation problems after chemotherapy which established long term psychological effects testicular cancer had on its sufferers as it   “threatens body image and fertility, and may trigger feelings of sexual vulnerability, offence and confusion,” Pool recommends that surgeons consider the psychological effects and offer psychological treatment.

The prognosis for testicular cancer is incredibly good as discussed previously if the cancer is found early enough there is a 90 per cent survival rate and 4 out of a 100 lumps are diagnosed as testicular cancer, could this positive aspect of good prognosis and incidence be contributing to men’s inability or lack of concern to check their testicles or self diagnose?  Men seemingly realise the consequence of testicular cancer as my own research has established, yet the increase of the disease is becoming ever more apparent.

Chapple and Ziebland found that “several men said that they decided to seek help after they had read about testicular cancer in magazines, newspapers or practice leaflets, or after they or their wives had seen television programmes about testicular cancer.”  It is through this research project I aim to establish information to underpin a successful awareness campaign highlighting this ever increasing disease.

 

Previous campaigns

 

In order to produce an effective campaign it is necessary to review what has previously occurred, and over the last seven years there has been three high profile testicular cancer awareness campaigns.

Launched in June 1999, everyman male cancer awareness month, a 50 second advert by Bartle Bogle Hegarty, featuring pop star Robbie Williams, was donated to the Institute of Cancer Research to create awareness of testicular cancer.  “The commercial uses one of men’s most obvious interests – women – to get the message across.”  Shot from the eyes of a holiday maker’s video camera, the ad follows the video capture of his friend’s first time on a jet ski.  Becoming distracted with the women on the beach, the footage is drawn more towards bikinis and breasts which have become more interesting to the amateur film maker.

 

Suddenly, an odd-looking pair of naked breasts comes into view – they’re false. As the camera pulls back, the breasts are strapped onto Robbie Williams who points at the camera: “Hey you know, if you men paid more attention to these (grabbing his crotch) instead of these (pointing to the false breasts) then maybe fewer of us would be dying of testicular cancer. So go and check ’em out.” 

 

This campaign illustrates the risk taking masculine trait alongside the active masculine act of scopophilia where the male gaze seeks out pleasure from the bikini-clad women.  The cameraman is the voyeur whose interest becomes sexually aggressive.  This viewpoint identifies with the typical hegemonic idea of men’s interest in women, yet this marginalises at least 6 per cent of the male population who are homosexual in nature as established within my previous research into Bullying.  Robbie Williams appears to be grabbing his penis far more than his testicles and as discussed within the introduction, many men and boys are rearranging their genitals or fiddling around with them as a pass time and does not mean they are inspecting them for health reasons.  This campaign clearly identifies with the macho stereotype.

 

During March 2002 the national campaign ‘Keep Your Eye on the Ball’, www.keepyoureyeontheball.org, was launched by The Football Association and The Professional Footballers’ Associations aimed at raising awareness of testicular cancer alongside the Institute of Cancer Research’s everyman campaign and Cancer Research UK’s Dad’s and Lad’s campaign to ensure that all footballers and their supporters are aware of the symptoms of testicular cancer. The campaign was in direct response to the discovery that players Neil Harris, Alan Stubbs, Craig Forrest and Jason Cundy all had testicular cancer who have successfully resumed playing after fighting the disease.

The campaign featured a variety of premiership football players posing with footballs that had a strange lump as do testicles with the disease.

 

 

This campaign uses the macho image of football, again a stereotypic image of hegemonic masculinity.  Undoubtedly football is an interest of some men and the use of the ball communicates the symptom of testicular cancer yet this method is identifiable only to the niche market of football fans, marginalising again the somewhat deviant masculinities who do not identify with sport.  The campaign however unified cancer research groups and football clubs nation wide.

These campaigns both promote the hegemonic ideal of masculinity through the competitiveness of sport and the sexual aggression associated with the most accepted masculinity.  This acceptance is all well and good in theory but the acknowledgement that masculinity is manifested on various levels should also be taken into consideration so not to marginalise and alienate other men from the message communicated through the campaign.

 

Launched this year on 6 July, by everyman, featuring patron Dermot O’Leary.  Created by Delaney Lund Knox Warren & Partners and kindly donated to everyman.   The advert is controversial in its nature as it is the first everyman campaign to feature testicles while approaching the topic, testicular cancer, and can be seen at www.noticeyournuts.com.  Featuring ‘normal’ men in everyday situations such as a group of men doing Tai Chi, a gardener strimming foliage in a park, mechanics in a garage, office workers in a lift and a man at a bus stop wearing a pair of giant testicles around their waists.  The strap line ‘make your balls a bigger part of your life’, recommends me pay more attention to their testicles rather than letting them hang around in the background.

This campaign as described places a variety of men in everyday situations and focuses more on the matter at hand, testicles.  This seems to be the more successful of the three mentioned as it covers various types of masculinity.  It does not however place men in more ‘feminine’ roles or show occupations such as hairdressers although it does communicate to both the working class man and the executive and creates an air of manliness that it is all right to check your testicles.  There is seemingly a shortage of young men within the sequence, and the fact that the disease occurs primarily between the ages 15 to 45  of which the majority of cases are apparent below 35, there seems a lack of identification with late teens and early twenties, a problem I hope to rectify within my campaign.

There are also various forms of printed material currently available demonstrating how a man should check himself for signs of testicular cancer which is not necessarily the most effective.  It usually comprises of an illustration, depicting the genital area, generally a cross section and then a crude illustration of some hands checking the testicles.  These images are usually lacking in detail, but one wonders that this measure is taken owing to men’s ‘heterosexual’, normative, hegemonic masculine attitude which will not allow them to view a pair of testicles, ‘in the flesh’ so to speak in case that would be seen as being ‘gay’?  Jewitt understands that the use of diagrams “promote normative heterosexual sex” and continues by explaining that “there is some evidence (…) to suggest that men’s sexual and reproductive organs are represented in the diagrams as more simple and straightforward than women’s.”  This can clearly be visible by the diagram below featured in the Cancer Research leaflet.

The campaigns are all very good in theory and create awareness of the disease but there are other factors that prevent men from dealing with the disease or actually having a relationship with their testicles.  In their study Chapple and Ziebland highlighted the fact that “well informed men may still delay. As our study and other studies have shown, many complex factors influence illness behaviour for men with testicular cancer.”  This is evidenced within my research as the oldest respondent would consider waiting 3 months before visiting his GP and one of the youngest would wait a month, both knowing the consequences of testicular cancer.

Establishing then through the research the indication that testicles are central to masculinity and are key to the development of becoming male and their importance  ensuring the survival of the human race, it seems evident that although the socially accepted belief that hegemonic masculinity is beneficial in developing real men, the evidence is clear that this behaviour seeks only to destroy itself through long suffering, restricted expression of emotion, violence, sexual promiscuity and poor relationships through arrogant independence and self sufficiency.  Understanding that masculinity is in crisis it would be necessary to communicate to a larger audience than the typical man who likes football, women’s breasts and beer which I hope to achieve through my campaign.

 

Application of theory

 

I decided to explore the various references to testicles and how they could be communicated on various levels without appearing graphic.  Initially I decided to use the reference to balls as representative of testes and communicate to the various age groups and masculinities through the use of:

Marbles, communicating to the youth sector.

Tennis, evoking a response from the competitive, sporty type masculinity.

Stress balls, identifying with the executive.

Roulette, which the risk taking males would associate with.

Within these four categories I felt I may well be marginalising and alienating some men and boys from the campaign so I decided to look at other references to testicles.  I uncovered that nuts and crown jewels were also used as popular phrases and investigated possible imagery that could be used within the campaign.  Understanding that masculinity was in crisis and manifests itself over many levels I found that there were many forms of nut, edible and mechanical that could be used to represent the genitalia.  After purchasing and photographing as many types of nut as I could find, I came to the conclusion that this was not necessarily as successful as I had initially thought until I started to eat one of the monkey nuts.  The monkey nut in its original form is reminiscent of the scrotum and contained within lies two nuts.  This would be the flagship image of the campaign, referring to the whole scrotum, revealing two nuts, ending in the tragic removal of one of the nuts, representing the consequence of testicular cancer, orchidectomy.

From the establishment my idea blossomed into the creation of a campaign that would appear over a period of a month, comprising of not only the monkey nut, but the other references to testes, marbles, stress balls, tennis balls and roulette and crown jewels.

Exploring the other types of nut I discovered that a whole walnut looked incredibly like a pair of lungs, and that fourth stage testicular cancer manifests itself within the lungs, owing to germ cells that are found usually between the heart and lungs after foetal development, I found that this avenue had a great deal of potential.  It was my aim to communicate the fatal risks of undetected testicular cancer, as most men, young men are unconcerned with its effects I felt it was necessary to convey the fatal aspects of the disease

Week one of the campaign would start with the range of images that represent the different references,

Monkey nut

Walnut

Tennis balls

Marble

Stress balls

Crown jewels

The following week would show the next stage, the monkey nut open, revealing the nut with a lump, enlarged tennis ball, communicating the symptom, along with enlarged marble, stress ball reflecting a stormy sky, broken walnut and crown jewels with lump.

Progressing into the third week the images display only the healthy image.  This builds up a familiarity with the general public as the campaign progresses.  Into week four the previous weeks images are  combined with the strap line “GET A GRIP” along with a subsequent strap line highlighting the facts of testicular cancer.

Week four also sees the launch of the moving image pieces that coincide with the billboards.  These approximately 20 second infomercials would be shown on television and in schools.  A Cancer Research or healthcare professional would visit schools nation wide disseminating the flagship image leaflet which highlights the consequences of testicular cancer and holding an assembling to explain the facts.

The leaflet would also be placed in pubs and bars across the nation, placed on the bar along with a bowl of monkey nuts where drinkers could experience the actual experience of opening the nut along with the visual aspect  of the campaign, ensuring the message gets across.

Casino houses would also be place for disseminating the leaflet as roulette is one of the themes of the video pieces.  This moving image communicates the risks of testicular cancer and the occurrence of the disease.  The casino house would offer a single bet 55 credits on the number 35, the age of the highest amounts of sufferers to on the last night of the campaign.

The campaign progresses into the bigger picture of testicular cancer over the month and through this development it aims to convey the severity of the disease and highlight men’s inability to:-

Check their testicles

Visit their general practitioner

Understand they are not invincible

Understand the consequences

 

Conclusion

 

Masculinity, although initially constructed by the testes, is really a learned gender identity, and although the impending consequence of testicular cancer, is an orchidectomy, removal of the testicle, the initial element of genetic masculinity, young men seem unaffected by this, as it would be difficult for them to forget how to be masculine as the process of osmosis will continue.   Testicular cancer then, does not affect masculinity, as one testicle can produce enough testosterone and sperm to continue to function and procreate as a virile male.  The requirement then to have balls for bravery is seemingly unnecessary as men believe they are not necessary for this masculine trait, which again is an absorbed idea.

Masculinity then, as uncovered, is not predetermined genetically, it is the social construction, how to walk and how to appear that  over the last two millennia, indicated by the virtuous persona, which has been a façade masking the real man inside.  This construction combined with the primeval aspects of human nature, violence, protection and survival, will continue to be the requirement, that man should typify the hegemonic masculine stereotype.

For this to change, culture would need to alter its view on masculinity, and as culture is patriarchal, male dominated, it would be difficult for this transformation to take place as it is deemed necessary to have this ideal image of a man as not only a measure, but a goal.

Man however, could alter, removing the more negative traits, of the stoical façade and realise the body is not invincible and that illness is not weakness.  It is through my campaign that I highlight not only the symptoms but also the consequences which I hope strikes fear into the men, stimulating them into taking better care of their testicles.

Rationale

Are you a man between 12-50*

Or a spouse, boyfriend, son, father, brother or best friend of a man who is? 

Know this:

During 2006 there will be 8,980 young men diagnosed and over 360 young men will die because they didn’t find it in time.  That is more deaths than women in this age group who will die of breast cancer. “Get a grip!”

* It is recommended that all men do a monthly testicular self-exam from puberty to the mid 40’s. Testicular cancer is rare in men over 50.

“Get a grip!” is a pastime many a man is involved in.  You will generally find males rearranging their genitals into a more comfortable position or as the current trend stands within the ‘chav’ and ‘scally’ subcultures that they hold the ’crown jewels’ constantly during conversation and general interaction.  This intimacy with ones ‘balls’ is not necessarily where the male examines his testes but where he exerts his maleness, his masculinity.

Chart 1 Attitudes towards health and lifestyle – men, 2004  Base: 498 men aged 15+

 

Chart 2 Sources of health advice and information–men, June 2004  Base: 498 men aged 15+

The above charts, from a report by Mintel, Men’s Changing Lifestyles – UK – June 2005, depict the attitudes of men with regards to their health and within the report there seems a great deal of stoicism.  In chat 1, questions 5,7 and 8 uncover just how stoic and stubborn the male population is many are generally unwilling to change their ways and are incredibly self reliant.  Chart 2 identifies how men tend to self diagnose their own problems, this is clearly and attempt not to look weak as displayed in questions 3, 5 and 6.  Question 4   The report also uncovered that men were less likely to discuss with their friends that they had found a lump on their testicle.  The interaction between a male and his testicles may not offer the insight of a strange lump and if he found one he would generally tend to it himself or quietly suffer.

Through these displays of stoicism, based on hegemonic masculinity, can man allow such a threat to his maleness as testicular cancer to take a grip on him and threaten his masculinity?  For what is a man without his ‘balls’?  Does he lose his masculinity?  Which takes me back to the original question, is masculinity created by the testes or manufactured by society?

Previous Research

Through the initial stages of the Masters program I have undertaken sociological issues regarding personal development and growth.  These topics have a great significance for, not only understanding myself, but other people for which I hope to transfer into a design context.

Bullying

During this research project I highlighted the issues of growing as a child and being the recipient of homophobic bullying whilst subjected to the taunts of developing hegemonic masculine boys.  I determined how this form of attack was used to reduce another’s masculinity therefore increasing ones own.

Identity

Through the interviewing and observation of various teenagers I discovered that even though the subculture members, defied hegemonic ideology during their transitional stage into adulthood, they did however take on masculine and feminine roles which are clearly defined within culture.  The group dynamics were formed and there within were clear dominant and subordinate masculinities and subordinate, maternal feminine figures.

General Methodology

Through a great deal of research into Greek philosophy, Freudian and Jungian theories I hope to uncover the various archetypes of masculinity.

Combining a series of primary and secondary research methods I aim to establish the importance of masculinity.

I hope to interview a sufferer of testicular cancer to determine the effects of this illness from a first hand source.  I shall also be reviewing other reports regarding this illness.

Through a series of questionnaires I aim to uncover whether men examine their testicles as described in various campaigns and their thoughts of how it would affect them.

Data Collection and Analysis

Primary research was undertaken using the questionnaire below as a reference to determine how masculine the respondents are, combined with the following questions to understand their knowledge of their gender identity and the relationship with their testicles with regards to their importance and that of the ever increasing disease, testicular cancer and its effects.  It is through these responses that I hope to  unearth what aspects of masculinity, if any, are constructed or whether they are a natural phenomena.

Trait 7 – MASCULINITY/FEMININITY

 

SCORING

Each question scores either one, half or zero points:

If you checked Yes or No (i.e. with * ) then allot one point.

If you checked Maybe then allot half a point.

If you checked Yes or No (i.e. without * ) then allot zero points.

Enter your score after each question, then add up the total for that Trait.

 

Do you like to engage in rough physical activity?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

At school did you prefer English literature over general science?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you enjoy reading romantic stories?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Are you very sensitive to beauty in your surroundings?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you enjoy shopping?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you feel like crying if you see a sad film?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Are you afraid of snakes, worms or spiders?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Does computer technology interest you more than the psychology of personal

relationships?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you sometimes have sadistic fantasies?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you like going to dances?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you like aggressive scenes of sex and violence at the movies?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Would the sight of a great deal of blood make you feint?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Are you “turned off” by crude and vulgar jokes?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you rely on intuition as to whether or not a person is trustworthy?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you occasionally break down and cry?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you enjoy watching competitive physical sports such as boxing and football?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Are you somewhat frightened of the dark?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Are you interested in science fiction?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you find it difficult to resist picking up and cuddling small furry animals?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you often think about falling in love?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you startle easily if someone appears suddenly and unexpectedly?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Would you consider taking part in an orgy?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Would you enjoy singing in a choir?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Are you curious about the workings of engines or other mechanical devices?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you like war stories and films?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Would you enjoy painting pictures of children?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Do you feel upset if you see a bird with a broken wing?

Yes | Maybe | No* || Score:

Would you rather be an air pilot than a dress designer?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

As a child, did you enjoy playing with guns?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Does it make you cringe to see men cry or hug each other?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

Do you find flowers extremely beautiful?

Yes* | Maybe | No || Score:

 

ANALYSIS

Those with high scores are definitely living up to the macho masculine stereotype.

They are tolerant of – and may even enjoy – violence, obscenity and swearing; they are disinclined to show weakness or sentimentality of any kind, e.g. by crying or expressing love, and they rely on reason rather than intuition to come to decisions.

Those with low scores are easily upset by another’s misfortune, by blood, bugs, brutality, etc. and are fascinated by delicate matters such as romance, children, fine arts, flowers and clothes. Obviously men score much higher on average than women but there is a great deal of variation within each sex and the cultural conditioning of gender stereotypes is under increasing scrutiny.

How do you compare?

The norm on this trait is between 13-14 points (a statistical approximation). This may be represented on the following scale:

 

Masculinity 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 || 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Femininity

 

Do you think you were born masculine? 50%

Were you taught how to be masculine? 71% no

Did you learn how to be masculine? 71% yes

Does masculinity come from the “balls” (testicles)? 50%

To have “balls” means to be brave? 71% yes

Are balls important? 79% yes

Do balls make you a man and hence masculine? 57% no

Is the penis more important? 64% yes

Do you check your balls for lumps? 79% yes

If so how regular?

If you found a lump would you get it checked out immediately?  79% yes

If no how long would you wait?

Are you aware of the consequences of testicular cancer?  93% yes

If you had to have a testicle removed would it affect your masculinity?  14% yes 7% not sure

Do you think you would still function as a man?  100% yes

Would you be happy with the one remaining testicle?  29% no

Would you have a prosthesis (false one) put in place of the removed so it looked like you still had two?  36% no

 

The research questionnaires were disseminated by email and through communication by bulletin at www.myspace.com.  A total of 50 emails were posted of which, 28 per cent responded, totalling 14 participants.  The age range was between 18 to 37 and the average was 24 / 25.  Answering the Masculinity / Femininity questionnaire the lowest score was 11 and the highest, 29.  Half, 50 per cent of the respondents scored around the 16 / 17 mark and the average was 18.5.  21 per cent of the men interviewed were gay, scoring above the normal trait of masculinity, between 16 and 19 in the test and the remainder identify as heterosexual of which 21 per cent scored below 13. 5, 13 to 14 being identified as normal masculinity.  The remaining heterosexuals, 58 per cent scored above 16.  Combining the sexualities a total of 79 per cent scored above 16 identifying with the “macho masculine stereotype” indicating then that masculinity is not typically a heterosexual trait.  The next step was to determine how masculinity was established.

Half the respondents thought they were born masculine, whilst 29 per cent thought they had been taught, 71 per cent had learned how to become masculine.  21 per cent thought that they were born masculine and that they were also taught and learned this gender identity yet one respondent answered no to all three questions and elaborated by saying “I just am” indicating he has no knowledge of becoming masculine and scoring 19 in the questionnaire he typifies the macho image.  Half thought that masculinity came from the testicles but 57 per cent didn’t believe that testicles made them a man and hence masculine.  79 per cent of the men thought that testicles were important but 64 per cent thought the penis was more so.

The area of testicular cancer was then queried of which nearly all, 93 per cent were aware of the consequences although a total of only 79 per cent checked their testicles for lumps.  One  man scoring 12.5 checked his testicles yearly, and when asked about if how long he would wait if finding a lump, he said, “till scared” this confirms that fear is a factor and scoring below the normal masculine figure of between 13 / 14 he would be classed as more feminine, yet heterosexual.

Knowing that an orchidectomy would take place if the disease occurred 14 per cent said that it would affect their masculinity one respondent who answered no added the comment, “unless it affects my body from a physical point, i.e lack of hormones”, scoring 16.5 he understands that masculinity was a learned identity not a genetic one.  Although all respondents said they would still function as a man one continued stating “but i wouldn’t be the same man, due to hormone changes and psychological factors to do with disfigurement” 

When asked if they would be happy with the remaining testicle 71 per cent said yes, two of the higher scoring masculine males  elaborated one scoring 23 said “yes i wouldn’t get angry and fall out with it, we’re friends forever” and another scoring 29, “yes, Id love it like a brother” which signifies men’s use of humour whilst dealing with sensitive issues.  Enquiring whether the men would have a prosthesis 64 per cent said yes

My primary research somewhat contradicts my main body of academic research, yet there are flaws within my results owing to such a small study.  This said I believe that academic research, studies and writings that have been published outweigh these findings and my main boresearch project stands as fact.  My research has however shed a positive light that men’s attention may well be increasing towards their health.

Qualifications and Restrictions

The predictable restrictions could be men’s ability or inability to discuss factors regarding health and image.  The common traits within the hegemonic masculine personality will prevent an honest, emotional response unless the questionnaire and research is undertaken anonymously.

Bibliography

 

http://www.ltcconline.net/lukas/gender/maleads/males.htm

http://fathom.lse.ac.uk/Seminars/21701720/21701720_session2.html

http://user.itl.net/~gemble/articles/masculinefeminine.htm

http://www.thefword.org.uk/features/2006/02/deconstructing_masculinity

http://www.theory.org.uk/mistry-printversion.htm

http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/stereotyping/men_and_masculinity/masculinity_defining.cfm

http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Modules/TF33120/gendertv.html#M

http://www.theoryhead.com/gender/interview2.htm

http://www.icr.ac.uk/press/1999/3360.shtml

http://www.xyonline.net/slogansandgraffiti.shtml#Masculinity

http://www.xyonline.net/misc/homophobia.html

http://lumen.georgetown.edu/projects/posterTool/index.cfm?fuseaction=poster.display&posterID=3108

http://www.espach.salford.ac.uk/english/module_handbooks/handbook_sm_0304.htm

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3343343.stm

http://www.xyonline.net/Testi.shtml

http://www.colorado.edu/journals/standards/V6N2Pride/PRIDE/fullwood.html

http://www.k-state.edu/qsa/men.htm

http://web2.airmail.net/ktrig246/out_of_cave/mf.html#hegemonic

http://www.seekwellness.com/andropause/testosterone.htm

http://wwwsshe.murdoch.edu.au/intersections/issue12/angles.html

http://www.xyonline.net/Testi.shtml

http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/hilaryjones/embarrassingprobs/testicularpain.htm

http://www.cancerbackup.org.uk/QAs/LivingwithcancerQAs/CopingwithcancerQAs/Sexuality/related_faqs/QAs/1083

http://www.my-penis.org/scrotum.html

http://www.healthcentral.com/erectile-dysfunction/tepper-2154-143.html

http://www.thezodiac.com/archetypesb.htm

http://www.mrob.com/pub/std/archetypes.html

http://www.cancer.org/docroot/PED/content/PED_2_3X_Symptoms_Involving_The_Testicles.asp?sitearea=PED

http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ma02/freed/fightclub/mv.html

http://www.birthpsychology.com/primalhealth/primaltwo.html

http://www.georgetown.edu/labyrinth/e-center/interscripta/mm.html

http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerandresearch/cancers/testicular/

http://www.socresonline.org.uk/2/2/6.html

http://www.birthpsychology.com/primalhealth/primaltwo.html

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0PAU/is_2_3/ai_n8966585

http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/article?title=testicular+cancer+masculinity&title_type=tka&year_from=1998&year_to=2005&database=1&pageSize=20&ind

ex=1

http://www.alternativescentral.com/pvf132.htm

References

(2004) THE ROLE OF MASS MEDIA IN (RE)DISTRIBUTION OF POWER. Center for Gender Studies.

ALEXANDER, S. M. (2003) STYLISH HARD BODIES: BRANDED MASCULINITY IN MEN’S HEALTH MAGAZINE. Sociological Perspectives, 46, 535-554.

BAXTER, L. F. & MACLEOD, A. (2005) Shifting forms of masculinity in changing organizations: the role of testicularity. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 18, 627-640.

BOEREE, C. G. (1997) Carl Jung. Personality Theories.

BOLER, M. (2005) Masculinity on Trial: Undressing Homophobia in the Bible Belt. Men and Masculinities, 7, 261-269.

BROOM, A. (2005) The eMale: Prostate cancer, masculinity and online support as a challenge to medical expertise. Journal of Sociology, 41, 87-104.

CARVER, T. (2006) POLITICS OF IDENTITY – X1 Being a Man. Government and Opposition, 41, 450–468.

CHAFETZ, J. S. (1974) MASCULINE/FEMININE OR HUMAN: An overview of the sociology of sex roles, Wisconsin, Peacock Publishers.

CHAPPLE, A. & MCPHERSON, A. (2004) THE DECISION TO HAVE A PROSTHESIS: A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF MEN WITH TESTICULAR CANCER. Psycho-Oncology, 13, 654–664.

CHAPPLE, A. & ZIEBLAND, S. (2002) Prostate cancer: embodied experience and perceptions of masculinity. Sociology of Health & Illness, 24, 820–841.

CHAPPLE, A. & ZIEBLAND, S. (2004) The Role of Humor for Men with Testicular Cancer. Qual Health Res, 14, 1123-1139.

CHAPPLE, A., ZIEBLAND, S. & MCPHERSON, A. (2004) Qualitative study of men’s perceptions of why treatment delays occur in the UK for those with testicular cancer. British Journal of General Practice.

CLARKE, J. & ROBINSON, J. (1999) Testicular Cancer: Medicine and Machismo in the Media (1980-94). Health (London), 3, 263-282.

Connell, R.W. (1995). Masculinities. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. (p. 71)

CONNELL, R. W. & MESSERSCHMIDT, J. W. (2005) HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY  Rethinking the Concept GENDER & SOCIETY.

CONSIDINE, P. (2006) From hero to zero. Consumer Insight:.

COWBURN, M. (2004) Book Review: Men, Masculinities and What Men Do: The Relationship of Critique and Change. Sexualities, 7, 497-501.

COWBURN, M. & DOMINELLI, L. (2001) Masking Hegemonic Masculinity:  Reconstructing the Paedophile as the Dangerous Stranger. British Journal of Social Work, 31, 399-415.

DEBRUINE, L. M., JONES, B. C., LITTLE, A. C., BOOTHROYD, L. G., PERRETT, D. I., PENTON-VOAK, I. S., COOPER, P. A., PENKE, L., FEINBERG, D. R. & TIDDEMAN, B. P. (2006) Correlated preferences for facial masculinity and ideal or actual partner’s masculinity. The Royal Society.

DOBSON, R. Official: being male is very bad for your health. (News) Roger Dobson. The Independent on Sunday (London, England) June 6, 2004 p13 (438 words)

Duncan, N. (1999) Sexual Bullying Routledge: London. Cited in Partners An update to tackling homophobia.PDF

EADIE, J. (2001) Masculinity, Terminable and Interminable. Sexualities, 4, 237-245.

FURNHAM, A., PETRIDES, K. V., SISTERSON, G. & BALUCH, B. (2003) Repressive coping style and positive self-presentation. British Journal of Health Psychology, 8, 223-249.

GALDAS, P. M., CHEATER, F. & MARSHALL, P. (2005) Men and health help-seeking behaviour: literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 49, 616-623.

GIROUX, H. A. Private Satisfactions and Public Disorders: Fight Club, Patriarchy, and the Politics of Masculine Violence

GLEASON, A. M. (2006) Racial Disparities in Testicular Cancer: Impact on Health Promotion. J Transcult Nurs, 17, 58-64.

HARLAND, K. A Man’s World?

HURRELL, G. (1999) The Interplay Between Constructions of Masculinity and Constructions of Subject English in One Coeducational Year 8 English Class School of Education Flinders University

JEWITT, C. (1997) Images of Men: Male Sexuality in Sexual Health Leaflets and Posters for Young People. Sociological Research Online, 2.

King, Helen “stoicism”  The Oxford Companion to the Body. Ed. Colin Blakemore and Sheila Jennett. Oxford University Press, 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.  Salford University.  17 July 2006  <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t128.e908>

LE GRYS, A. (2005) Book Review: ‘Real’ Men in the New Testament; New Testament Masculinities. The Expository Times, 116, 134-a-135.

Levine, Martin P. (1998). Gay Macho. New York: New York University Press.

Mac An Ghaill, M. (1994) The Making of Men: Masculinities, Sexualities, and Schooling. Open University Press: Milton Keynes. Cited in Partners An update to tackling homophobia.PDF

MCMANUS, I. C. (2002) Right-left and the scrotum in Greek sculpture. Department of Psychology.

MESSNER, M. Sex and Gender. Sociology 552

Messner, Michael A. (1997). Politics of Masculinities: Men in Movements. University of Southern California: Sage.

NAKAGAWA, Y. (2001) Flexible Masculinity – masculinity with sociological approach. Gender Awareness in Language Education Newsletter 3, 8-9.

OBSATZ, D. M. (2000) SEVEN TRAITS OF HEALTHY MASCULINITY FOR THE NEW MILLENNIUM:  POWER, PURPOSE, PASSION, PATERNITY, PERSISTENCE, PIETY, PRESENCE The Times for Fathers and Families, 1.

OLIFFE, J. (2006) Embodied masculinity and androgen deprivation therapy. Sociology of Health and Illness, 28, 410-432.

PASCOE, C. J. (2005) ‘Dude, You’re a Fag’: Adolescent Masculinity and the Fag Discourse. Sexualities, 8, 329-346.

PEARCE, J. (2005) TOWARDS A POST REPRESENTATIONAL POLITICS?: PARTICIPATION IN THE TWENTY FIRST CENTURY. Department of Peace Studies and Director of the International Centre for Participation Studies.

PHILLIPS, D. A. (2006) MASCULINITY, MALE DEVELOPMENT, GENDER, AND IDENTITY: MODERN AND POSTMODERN MEANINGS Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 27, 403-423.

POOL, G. (2003) Surviving testicular cancer: Sexuality and other existential issues. Departments of Surgical Oncology, Medical Oncology, Medical Psychology and Urology. Groningen, Groningen University.

RESEARCH, C. (2005) Testicular Cancer.  Spot the symptoms early.

RESER, E. M. (2005) Strategies of Negotiation in Mainstream Media: Vernacular Discourse and Masculinity inThe Full Monty POPULAR COMMUNICATION, 4, 217-237.

Schoenberg, B. Mark; Growing Up Male: The Psychology of Masculinity. Bergin & Garvey, 1993

SINCLAIR, C. (2004) TESTICULAR CANCER. The Cancer Council Australia.

SOULLIERE, D. (2005) Masculinity on Display in the Squared Circle: Constructing Masculinity in Professional Wrestling. Electronic Journal of Sociology.

STETS, J. E. & BURKE, P. J. (2000) Femininity / Masculinity, New York, Macmillan Reference.

STOBBE, L. (2005) Doing Machismo: Legitimating Speech Acts as a Selection Discourse. Gender, Work and Organization, 12, 105-123.

“Stoicism”  The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. E. A. Livingstone. Oxford University Press, 2000. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.  17 July 2006  <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t95.e5453>

“Stoicism”  The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Simon Blackburn. Oxford University Press, 1996. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.  17 July 2006  <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t98.e2255>

“stoical adjective”  The Oxford Paperback Thesaurus. Ed. Maurice Waite. Oxford University Press, 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.  Salford University.  17 July 2006  <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t24.e13746>

“stoicism noun”  The Oxford Paperback Thesaurus. Ed. Maurice Waite. Oxford University Press, 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.  Salford University.  17 July 2006  <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t24.e13747>

UNKNOWN Discourse on changing Masculinities Gender Studies.

WALL, D. & KRISTJANSON, L. (2005) Men, culture and hegemonic masculinity: understanding the experience of prostate cancer. Nursing Inquiry, 12, 87-97.

WETHERELL, M. & EDLEY, N. (1999) Negotiating Hegemonic Masculinity: Imaginary Positions and Psycho-Discursive Practices. Feminism Psychology, 9, 335-356.

WHITEHEAD, S. (1999) Hegemonic Masculinity Revisited. Gender, Work and Organization, 6, 58-62.

WHITEHEAD, S. (2000) Masculinity: Shutting Out the Nasty Bits. Gender, Work and Organization, 7, 133-137.

 

Endnotes

[1] http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_128b.html

[1], [1]Mystifying increase in male cancer

BRITISH cancer specialists are puzzled by an increase in the number of men contracting cancer of the testicles.   British and American doctors report an increase of up to 70 per cent in the past 10 years and the figures are continuing to rise.

Cancer of the testicles is the most common form of cancer in men aged between 20 and 34 and accounts for 13 per cent of all deaths in this age group.

But it is still rare when compared with the incidence of breast cancer in women.

The disease is most common among white, middle-class males in higher-income groups.    In particular, it has been associated with tall, thin men and one study suggested university educated men were four times more likely to contract the disease.   Researchers have ruled out venereal disease as cause of the rise but some researchers think there could be a link with congenital abnormality which goes unrecognised until the cancer is diagnosed.

More patients with testicular cancer have such abnormalities as previously undetected double kidneys or ureters than do other cancer patients.

Other researchers scoff at these theories.  A Scandinavian team is investigating if tight underpants contribute to the rise by increasing the skin temperature in the genital area.

Like breast cancer in women, testicular cancer is curable, if diagnosed in the early stages. The overall cure rate is 75 to 80 per cent.

Because of this, health workers in Britain and the United States are beginning a public education campaign.

SUELLEN O’GRADY  THE WEEKEND AUSTRALIAN August 1-2 1981

[1] http://www.iep.utm.edu/f/freud.htm

[1] http://www.ubu.com/papers/mccaf.html

[1] http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/34945/a_pyschoanalytical_critique_of_freuds.html

[1] http://www.victorianweb.org/science/freud/develop.html

[1] http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/34945/a_pyschoanalytical_critique_of_freuds.html

[1] http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/jung.html

[1] http://www.aphroditewomenshealth.com/news/vasectomy.shtml

[1] http://www.mcmvanbree.com/pieces.htm#metrosexual

[1] “The term ‘hegemonic masculinity’ refers to a particular idealised image of masculinity in relation to which images of femininity and other masculinities are marginalised and subordinated.  The hegemonic ideal of masculinity in current Western culture is a man who is independent, risk-taking, aggressive, heterosexual and rational.”  (Barrett 2001, 79)

[1] Duncan, N. (1999) Sexual Bullying Routledge: London. Cited in Partners An update to tackling homophobia.PDF

[1] Mac An Ghaill, M. (1994) The Making of Men: Masculinities, Sexualities, and Schooling. Open University Press: Milton Keynes. Cited in Partners An update to tackling homophobia.PDF

[1] http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/logos.htm

[1] http://www.middletownbiblechurch.org/homefam/prov31.htm

[1] http://www.irishhealth.com/index.html?level=4&section=&4&id=1969

[1] http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/mens_health/issues_testicular.shtml

[1] http://www.fathersdirect.com/index.php?id=0&cID=362

[1] http://www.menshealthforum.org.uk/userpage1.cfm?item_id=1731

[1] http://www.newstarget.com/001984.html

[1] http://healthlink.mcw.edu/article/946011724.html

[1] http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/hilaryjones/embarrassingprobs/testicularpain.htm

[1] http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/hilaryjones/embarrassingprobs/testicularpain.htm

[1] [Conversation started on 21 Jul 2006 19:02:19]

[19:04:23] Ford : well i am currently doing my next masters project

[19:04:35] Ford : on the relationship between men and their testicles

[19:04:55] markhusak : ooh er mrs

[19:04:57] Ford : producing an awareness campaign for testicular cancer

[19:05:04] markhusak : good cause

[19:05:11] markhusak : i once got checked out

[19:05:15] Ford : did you now

[19:05:25] markhusak : n they shoved a thing down my jap’s eye

[19:05:34] Ford : for testicle cancer or a uti?

[19:05:45] markhusak : n then they made he have a piss afterwards n it proper killed

[19:05:57] markhusak : i had a lump on my ball

[19:06:04] markhusak : but they said it was a cist

[19:06:19] markhusak : they said it would go away but it aint

[19:06:24] Ford : has it not

[19:06:43] markhusak : no

[19:06:46] markhusak : its still there

[19:07:07] Ford : how did you feel when you found it

[19:07:36] markhusak : dunno

[19:07:40] markhusak : i wasnt that worried

[19:07:44] markhusak : or maybe i was

[19:07:57] markhusak : it took me a year before i went to get it checked out

[19:08:01] markhusak : maybe i was scared

[19:08:18] Ford : so you had it for a year before you went to the docs

[19:08:24] markhusak : yes

[19:08:30] markhusak : i went to st lukes

[19:08:41] markhusak : n they asked me loads akward questions like

[19:08:43] Ford : why did you wait so long

[19:09:00] markhusak : when was the last time u had sex, n is that ur girlfriend outside

[19:09:06] markhusak : like i was a junkie or sommat

[19:09:27] markhusak : i dont know, i think i was hoping that it would go away but it didnt so i thought i better check it out

[19:10:05] Ford : do you think it would have affected your masculinity

[19:11:26] markhusak : nah

[19:11:30] markhusak : maybe at the time

[19:11:36] markhusak : i dont think it matters

[19:11:41] markhusak : one ball, two balls

[19:11:45] markhusak : its all the same to me

[19:11:51] Ford : really?

[19:12:04] markhusak : yes really

[19:12:21] markhusak : im sure it would av been scary but if u loose a ball its better than dying

[19:12:36] Ford : well yes i suppose

[19:12:53] Ford : so you think you would be able to function with just 1

[19:13:06] markhusak : i dunno, u can cant ya

[19:13:12] Ford : yes you can

[19:13:13] markhusak : u can still have kids i think

[19:13:24] Ford : you can

[19:13:26] markhusak : thats the main thing

[19:13:45] Ford : so if you were to find another lump now what would you do?

[19:14:25] markhusak : probably get it checked straight away

[19:14:41] Ford : you wouldn’t self diagnose then and think it was a cyst

[19:15:08] markhusak : dunno.  i guess its better b safe than sorry

[19:15:36] markhusak : any how im off for my tea so ill see ya later

[19:15:43] Ford : see you

[19:16:11] markhusak : stay safe

[19:16:11] markhusak : cya dude

[19:16:15] Ford : you too

[19:16:17] Ford : bye

[You have closed the window on 21 Jul 2006 19:16:22]

[1] http://www.cancerhelp.org.uk/help/default.asp?page=5488&order=1722

[1] http://www.cancerbackup.org.uk/QAs/TesticularcancerQAs/SymptomsdiagnosisQAs/Tumormarkers/related_faqs/QAs/344

[1] http://www.icr.ac.uk/everyman/testicular/facts/faqs.html

[1] http://www.icr.ac.uk/press/1999/3360.shtml

[1] http://www.icr.ac.uk/press/2002/2301.shtml

[1] http://www.icr.ac.uk/everyman/news/DermotWarnsMentoNoticeTheirNuts.html

[1] http://www.tcaw.org/issues/getagrip.html

[1] http://www.trans4mind.com/personality

Identity

Finding Emo

Early edits

Exploration into the Punk Rock Subculture

Aims and Objectives

”For just as the conflict between Genet’s ‘unnatural’ sexuality and the policemen’s ‘legitimate’ outrage can be encapsulated in a single object, so the tensions between dominant and subordinate groups can be found reflected in the surfaces of subculture – in the styles of mundane objects which have a double meaning.”  Hebdige, 1979Movie Get Out (2017)

It is with this quote in mind I aim to analyse the layers off ‘punk identity’ and to understand how, through graphics and fashion, ‘punk’ resisted the dominant culture of the day.  Through the ‘unacceptable’ choices Punks made such as anarchy, hedonism and living for the moment, not foreseeing a future (NO FUTURE).  This message of ‘resistance’ was conveyed through a well designed and constructed system of visual signs, communicated graphically through fanzines, clothing, record sleeves and posters and physically through everyday objects such as safety pins and bin liners.

Through the research and exploration of the ‘punk rock’ subculture I aim to uncover the inspiration and meaning behind these visual aspects of this most celebrated and yet reviled subculture.

This project therefore hopes to unearth:

When the emergence of punk occurred

Who the major influences were within punk subculture

How the punk identity was created and communicated

What the relationship is between culture and subculture

Why there is the necessity for subculture

The Emergence of Punk Rock

Punk rock is a subculture movement that emerged in the mid 1970’s.  There are various theories regarding the exact time and place of this subculture’s emergence but the major fact is that it happened and the repercussions and influences can be still felt today through the impact it had.  Punk rock occurred at both sides of the Atlantic, in New York’s East Village and London, England, practically simultaneously creating transatlantic globalisation.  As Lentini states “transatlantic exchanges (…) contributed to punk’s emergence on both sides of the Atlantic”.  For this research project I aim to concentrate on the British Punk movement and the main characters who participated in the movement.

British punk rock was conceived in London during the mid 1970’s, the inspiration for this new sound was the strong opposition from musicians regarding the acquisition and monopolisation of the rock music industry by huge businesses as Hutch states

“the music business was as corrupt and – well – fucked up as the rest of cosy, oppressive, brain-dead 1970s Britain”.  The sound was purposely crude and extreme and consisted of frenzied rhythms, hammering instruments and raucous, blaring vocals as Mazullo states “…was purely a music of the British working class.”.  British Punk bands were becoming ever more disillusioned with the political and social conditions within the UK. Indeed as Henry evidences this decline in mid 1970’s Britain when he states that: “youth faced a lack of job opportunities or, at best, the prospect of entering a mainstream world they found abhorrent”.

Although the British Punk movement had been emerging slowly in the early 1970’s the subculture itself was clearly placed on the map with the construction and unleashing of the Sex Pistols in 1975. This globalising emergence has a connecting factor, being that of self-created fashion and costume designer, Malcolm McLaren.

Constructing the Situation

McLaren whose university education spanned nearly a decade, studied at various prestigious London universities and colleges.

Attending St. Martin’s College of Art (1963) and Harrow Art College (1964).  McLaren was expelled from South East Essex (1965) and it was in this year that fellow student, Gordon Swire introduced him to his sister, Vivienne Westwood.  McLaren moved in with Swire and two other film students in a run down house in Clapham.  They were soon joined by Westwood and her son from her failed marriage to Derek Westwood.  During this time McLaren and Westwood’s relationship flourished.  He

“lectured her on the political power of art and the appeal of cult fashions. During this time, their roles were established and set for the next decade: she as the student craftsman, he the opinionated art director.”  McLaren still feeling the need for study attended Chiswick Polytechnic (1966) from which he was later expelled, establishing his rebellious, anti-authoritarian personality.  1967 saw the birth of McLaren and Westwood’s son, Joseph.  His arrival placed a great strain on their relationship, especially for McLaren.  This was also a year without academia but one where McLaren would meet fellow Situationist and collaborator, Jamie Reid.  Reid embarked on his journey of further education initially at Wimbledon Art College (1962) and then to the Croydon Art School, Surrey (1964).  During his time at Croydon, Reid became involved with the publication ‘Heatwave’, a British alliance of the Situationist International for which he designed a front cover. McLaren decided to continue his education yet again, attending Croydon College of Art (1968) to study painting.  During his studies here McLaren became interested in the political art movement, Situationist International whom he wrote his dissertation on.

The Situationist International was a political art movement created in 1957 whose influences and connections were related to Marxism, Dadaism and Existentialism. The movement consisted of a total of 70 members over its duration although never having any more than 40 members at any one time and with a minimum of 10 the Situationist’s were known for falling out within their circle. The self-proclaimed leader was Guy Debord, who ruled with absolute authority, preventing the growth of the SI unless his specific ideas were adhered to. The movement itself was extremely pro active during the 1960’s with perhaps Debord’s greatest text, ‘The Society of the Spectacle’ being written in 1967.  Following the publishing of this text the movement received its most attention during the Paris riots in 1968 and the occupation of the Sorbonne.

Debord’s book The Society of the Spectacle, was read by McLaren and became his inspiration.  Although unable to make the Paris riots McLaren teamed up with fellow Situationist, Jamie Reid who had strong connections with the British alliance of the Situationist movement.  Together they organised their first protest at the Art School, reflecting the student occupation at the Sorbonne in Paris.  That same year their collaboration was to take yet another form.  This time they began to create a film about the ‘History of Oxford Street’ which describes their account of the Gordon Riots.  Depicting the middle classes who initially attacked the catholic religion by knocking their houses down.  The working class then became involved, helping to knock down the houses.  Running out of catholic houses they turned to the wealthy houses, of which the middle classes wanted no part.  The rioters then went on to destroy all the London prisons and any establishment that prevented them from having a good time.  They then wanted to set all the lunatics free from the asylums and the lions from the Tower.  The film was never finished and McLaren and Reid parted going their separate ways.  Reid’s rebellious side had been spurred, not only by his parent’s influence but the protest of 1968 and he continued this appetite with the co-founding of the Suburban Press in 1970 alongside Jeremy Brook and Nigel Edwards.  This community news-sheet began in Croydon, soon evolved into a vehicle where Reid could display his political interests.  His involvement and interest with Situationist International was reflected by the use of their slogans and the propaganda style graphics suggesting local corruption.

As Kingston states Reid’s “anti-consumerist snipes and capers remain as cutting edge today as they were back in 1972/3, when they were first unleashed on an unsuspecting London…..’Keep Warm This Winter – Make Trouble’ ….. ‘Save Petrol – Burn Cars’ ….. ‘This Store Welcomes Shoplifters’ ….. and the classic sticker that just screamed ‘Lies !’.”

This approach which Reid continued to develop, was the inspiration that was to become the foundation of the Punk graphic.  The look was severe and subversive; identities were turned on their head, photocopiers were used and the colour intensified to the extreme and the excellent use of torn typography was perfected to a fine art.  Employing the act of detournement, a term used by the Situationist International, where established media is turned back on itself, contradicting its original cause and meaning, being a weapon against itself was Reid able to make consumerist snipes.  This process is what he would later perfect with McLaren in future works.

While Reid was engaging an attack on consumerism, McLaren attempted a final academic stint at Goldsmith’s College (1969-1971) it was here where he began to design costumes and gained an interest in fashion design.  Leaving Goldsmith’s without acheiving a degree McLaren opened his first boutique alongside Vivienne Westwood in 1971.

The boutique started life as ‘Let It Rock’, a rock-a-billy haven, specialising in 50’s memorabilia.  Initially at the back of the store in a sublet space, the shop became hugely popular and attracted customers nation-wide.  It was the establishment of this cult store where Westwood spent the majority of her time and put the seamstress skills she acquired as a child to use.  She spent her time dissecting and analysing teddy boy jackets and then recreating them.  Her seamstress skills perfected and catering for the likes of Uxbridge Teddy Boys.  The emporium continued to evolve and expanded to take over the whole store in the spring of 1972.  Tiring of the Teddy Boys racist attitude, the store was refurbished and reopened, adorned with a new look and name, ‘Too Fast To Live Too Young To Die’, which paid homage to the early death of James Dean.  The shop was aimed at bikers and the look typical of ‘Marlon Brando’, emulating the look of a ‘biker’.  Taking on new staff, McLaren employed art student, Glen Matlock who had called into the shop enquiring about brothel creepers.  Matlock was also a bass player and a huge Faces fan who were currently on tour.  Matlock watched them play at the Wembley Empire Pool on October 29.

Visiting the boutique in 1972 was Sylvain Sylvain from the New York Dolls who were touring with The Faces.  The New York Dolls formed in December of 1971, they were pre punk and played heavily on the androgyny of glam rock.  Their influences ranged from Marc Bolan and David Bowie to the Rolling Stones and the Stooges.

“The New York Dolls created a new form of hard rock that presaged both punk rock and heavy metal.”   Renowned for their drug-fuelled antics, vulgar displays and transvestism, many record companies would not take a risk in signing them, until Jerry Nolan replaced their then drummer Billy Murcia.  Murcia had died from a mishap involving drink and drugs, on tour,

”where he drowned in a bath” on November 6Mercury then proceeded to sign the group in 1973 and their next step was to record their debut album with producer Todd Rundgren.  The album of the same name was released in that summer and

“was a proto-punk revelation”  although it received rave reviews it was not a success with the public.

SEX, 430 Kings Road, Chelsea, 1976 with Ford Capri

During this time the store had introduced some changes and 1974 was the next stage of the boutique which saw the initial beginnings of punk.  Using McLaren’s shock tactics the boutiques name transformed into SEX which was displayed in huge padded pink lettering above the shop.  Displaying such a ‘dirty’ word in the light of day in such a tactile. inviting, fleshy fashion was unheard of, taking what would be seen by society to be a sacred act  that would be performed behind closed doors to be displayed in full view in the light of day for all to see.  The store was to house a vast array of subversive clothing including .fetish gear, sado-masochistic and rubber wear.

McLaren and Westwood’s notoriety had spread to the film industry and they had the luxury of designing costumes for such Ken Russell films as; Mahler and That’ll be the Day, both screened in 1974. That same year, continuing with their greatest influence McLaren and Reid were again united, involved with the layout for “Leaving the 20th Century”, the first English anthology of work written by the Situationist International by Christopher Gray.  The book included some of Jamie Reid’s cartoons and graphics to give the message a more aesthetic appeal.  After this creation Reid retreated to the Isle of Lewis in the Outer Hebrides.

Late that same year McLaren paid a visit to the National Boutique show at New York’s MacAlpin Hotel where he again met up with the New York Dolls.  ‘Too Much Too Soon’ released in 1974 was a New York Dolls album produced by George “Shadow” Morton.  Morton had produced some of the 1960’s great girl bands including the Shangri-Las.  Even though this bizarre combination of proto-punk and pop seems unthinkable the sound was a success but not a commercial one.  This album was yet again a failure for the Dolls.  Mercury dropped the group and no other companies were interested in the Dolls.  This was a great opportunity for McLaren, to revive the Dolls flagging career as the Doll’s employed him as manager.  Mclaren started what would be known as political chic putting into practice the radical Situationist influences.  Using these shock tactics he dressed the Dolls in red leather and presented them in front of the USSR’s flag.  This blatant suggestion of the Dolls allegiance with communism did not sit well with Americans and their careers demise was inevitable as record companies were even more dubious about signing the band.  Members of the band started to lose faith and leave and McLaren was soon dismissed as manager.

In 1975, after his ‘failure’ to save the flagging career of the New York Dolls, McLaren returned to England with a wealth of information and experience from this short time with the group.  The SEX boutique had acquired a huge following and there were regular visitors to the shop.  One in particular being Steve Jones.  Jones was a member of the group called ‘The Strand’ who had previously formed in 1972 along with Paul Cook and Wally Nightingale.  They were in need of a manager and on McLaren’s return from America. Jones enquired whether he would be interested.  Organising a place for them to rehearse, McLaren paid a visit to watch them perform.  Seeing they had no permanent bass player and no stage presence, McLaren called on the services of current Saturday boy shop assistant cum bass player Glen Matlock.  The band was still incomplete, they needed a front man.  Another regular client of the SEX boutique was John Lydon.  His entrance in the shop caught McLarens eye, with his bright green hair, sporting a Pink Floyd t-shirt with “I hate” written on it.  Asked if he could sing, Lydon replied

No only out of tune and anyway I play the violin’”.  Auditioning in the SEX boutique Lydon was snapped up  as front man, given a new name, Johnny Rotten and by August McLaren had proceeded to construct the Sex Pistols.  The name, not only referring to the male genitalia but also the ‘dissemination’ of the SEX label clothing.  The “sexy assassins” as McLaren called them were walking mannequins and advertising vehicles for his range of clothing created alongside Vivienne Westwood at SEX, 430 Kings Road.  They were a force to be reckoned with and had as Ferrell(1995) describes, an “intentionally confrontational and disturbing style. Drawing on the violently confused imagery of sadomasochism, bondage, fascism, and anarchy”.  Anarchy was the key.  It encapsulated the whole Punk ideology.  It was a message for the people with ‘No Future’.

Although the Sex Pistols were established and their look promoted the SEX merchandise, they needed a clear identity to ‘compliment’ their image.  1976 saw McLaren call upon old art school friend Jamie Reid to work on the promotional graphics for the band.  Through the traditional use of telegram McLaren contacted Reid in the remote isles of Outer Hebrides,

“Got these guys. Stop. Interested in working with you again. Stop.”

This would give Reid the opportunity to carry on with his subversive propaganda techniques.  Creating the Punk iconography he is renowned for, to be plastered on record sleeves, posters and t-shirts, promoting the Pistols.  The influence would continue from the 1960’s Situationists and Debordism, and Reids defiant approach would create a storm within the media.

The team was now complete, the political graphic skills of Reid, Westwood’s tailoring, McLaren as impresario and the Sex Pistols as the vehicle.  Punk was here and society could never have been ready for what was about to take place.

Hegemony

What exactly is the meaning of “hegemony”?

“…Dominant groups in society, including fundamentally but not exclusively the ruling class, maintain their dominance by securing the ‘spontaneous consent’ of subordinate groups, including the working class, through the negotiated construction of a political and ideological consensus which incorporates both dominant and dominated groups.” Strinati, 1995

Hegemony is not a strategy exclusive to the ‘dominant’ culture, its form can emerge from social and class struggles and with Punk’s inception from a Britain in decline, brought with it its own hegemonic ideology.  The subculture ‘punk’ expressed that its roots belong to the realms of the working class yet the construction of the subculture and its content was manufactured by middle class art students, McLaren and Reid, whose influences were derived from such movements as French Situationalists, Dadaism and Surrealism.  These educated influences are not what you would find in the socially deprived streets of a working class Britain in decline but through the coercion between McLaren, Westwood and later, Reid.    Their middle class intellectual, Situationist tactics, were channelled into the working class Sex Pistols, whom they used as their political vehicle, creating a combined force which ‘dominant’ culture had to acknowledge.  The Punk’s ‘violent’ attack on society took place through the display of their clothing, the lyrics of the songs and the graphics used to promote this ideology.  Through the well designed and constructed ideas, using the politics of class, gender and sexuality the control of the ‘state’ was established.

Gender and Sexuality

They embraced alienation, and their “nihilist aesthetic” included “polymorphous, often wilfully perverse sexuality, obsessive individualism, a fragmented sense of self” .Hebdige, 1979

One of these weapons was sexuality.  Punk sexuality was suggestive, and the clothing compared to that of ‘sexual deviants’, which was housed in the shop ‘SEX’. The use of anything that was seen to be unacceptable by ‘culture’ would be used.  This was made apparent by the use of sexual fetish clothing, sadomasochism and bondage, which Westwood describes

“The bondage clothes were ostensibly restricting, but when you put them on they gave you a feeling of freedom.”  There were other clothes depicting scenes of homosexuality, suggestions of rape and paedophilia, which brought these sexual subcultures out from the underground into the light of day, like the sign above the SEX store.  These clothes took on new meanings thus forcing ‘culture’ to acknowledge the ‘abnormal’ subcultures that usually exist in the safety of night and behind closed doors making society consider elements of subcultural activity they would not deliberate which in effect challenged the dominant culture.

“Although punk rock of the 1970s did not really sustain extended interest in gender politics or sexual politics, it did provide a subcultural context in which girls could be boys and femininity could be totally rejected.”  Halberstam, 1999

As Hebdige(1988) discusses, punk women were given a place within subculture albeit one of “secondary interest” they were however able to recreate themselves in any format, challenging the hegemonic ideology of dominant culture through their refusal to “submit to the masterful gaze.”  Although the hegemonic ideology had transferred as Levine (1992) states “Punk rock retained misogynist imagery” Westwood was able to use detournement reflecting back this idea in the form of a violent attack on culture An example of this is described in the text printed on the

‘Rape’ T-shirt (Stolper and Wilson, 2004). the T-shirt featured a passage of text taken from School for Wives, a pornographic novel by Alexander Trocchi, who was an excluded member of the Situationist International.  The suggestion of this brutal act, delivered in such an erotic way, again forces culture to reconsider its position.  The thought that one could be aroused by rape is culturally abhorrent.  A further expression of defiance was displayed in the form of ‘Tits’, a T-shirt which displayed a pair of female breasts, in the correct position.  This T-shirt was unisex and gave men the opportunity to flirt with appearing  ‘cross gender’.  Their skinny, androgynous looks calling into question, gender and sexuality.

Running alongside misogyny is homophobia which was (is) deeply entrenched in society.  Westwood and McLaren also produced the “Two Cowboys” print which depicts a heavily plagiarised Tom of Finland style print of two cowboys who are half naked, their penises practically touching.  This blatant display of homosexuality was not received well.  Resisting not only dominant culture but the men who wore these items of clothing challenged hegemonic masculinity.  Their sexuality unknown, although, most probably heterosexual, suggested through this display they may be homosexual thrusting another taboo into the face of dominant culture.  The portrayal of these two men in such an act defies the moral standing of the mid 1970’s.  Alan Jones was arrested in August of 1975 under the 1824 Vagrancy Act and fined £15.  The police later visited SEX and confiscated a number of T-shirts including  the ‘Two Cowboys’ and ‘Rape’.  McLaren and Westwood were heavily fined and ordered to pay £120.

Paedophilia

Another element of subcultural activity society will not deliberate is paedophilia.  1976 saw the outraged public reaction to Mapplethorpe’s image, ‘Honey’.  The image depicted a pre-school girl lifting her dress, exposing her genitalia, which caused such a stir that year and Ferrell discusses it’s ‘crime’, quoting The Washington Post  “… The photo advertises the availability of the child (and, by extension, all children) for photographic assault and rape.”

McLaren being the Situationist he was almost certainly sensed the publics reaction to this ‘crime’ and probably tapped into what was happening around the Mapplethorpe image.  Using this controversy to influence, he created an unsettling image for the Sex Pistols incorporating a picture of a young boy, smoking, (which had been taken from a pedophile magazine) together with a tribal manifesto, devised in the autumn of 1976 by McLaren and Bernie Rhodes, later manager of ‘The Clash’, which was entitled ‘You’re gonna wake up one morning and know what side of the bed you’ve been lying on!’.  They listed on the left over a hundred ‘Hates’ and on the right side their ‘Loves’.  Challenging members of society to make a decision.  You were either with them or against them.  The image was used again that year for the 100 Club and Club du Chalet du Lac in 1976.  This poster was used to promote the ‘Sex Pistols’ first ever-foreign concert.  The copy read, ‘London’s Most Notorious Band!’.  The text written here accompanied the image well as the poster suggests the boy was a Sex Pistol, a sexual being, which stirred a great deal of emotion within ‘culture’ as people do not want to see children portrayed as sexual beings for fear they will be aroused or stimulated by it.

‘You’re gonna wake up one morning and know what side of the bed you’ve been lying on!’

The majority of material promoting the Sex Pistols was provocative, which seems an understatement as  Ferrell discusses “In addition, British authorities ruled the band’s promotional displays to be obscene;”  Punk had created a political language which culture had to acknowledge.

Class

“The Sex Pistols single release of ‘Anarchy in the UK’ (1976) summed up punk’s radical position where Malcolm McLaren, the self-proclaimed punk creator and Sex Pistol’s manager, was quick to point out, ‘ “ Anarchy in the UK ” is a statement of self-rule, or ultimate independence, of do-it-yourself ’.” Triggs, 2006

This do-it-yourself method was demonstrated through the use of ‘ready made’ text and imagery, of which some was blatant plagiarism, suggesting the influence of Dada, making use of the ‘art of the ready made’ was reflected in the construction of the ransom note inspired logo which Jamie Reid created for the Sex Pistols.  This use of cut and paste and the ‘do it yourself’ aesthetic was also applied to the self published fanzines.  The punk fanzine was seemingly working class through its use of language.  The intentional use of misspelling, grammatical errors and jumbled pagination suggested that the creators were uneducated continuing the expression of working class.  This constructed, humble approach helped to gain the assistance of the ‘workers’.

Punks appeal to the other minorities and subcultures helped to unify a forceful attack on the ‘state’.  Punk had a place for all ‘misfits’ of society, women, lesbians.  They were the 1% who didn’t care but had the power to structure an allegiance with other subcultures to form a hegemonic strategy.

“As the plethora of punk-inspired fanzines materialised, a unique visual identity emerged, with its own set of graphic rules and a ‘ do-it yourself ’ approach neatly reinforcing punk’s new found ‘ political ’ voice.  As independent self-published publications, fanzines became vehicles of subcultural communication and played a fundamental role in the construction of punk identity and a political community.” Triggs, 2006

The rebellious, defiant attitude, some of which was treasonable caused moral panic..  One of these treasonable offences was the release of ‘God Save the Queen’ which coincided with the Queen’s Jubilee.  Reid constructed a heavily Situationist influenced image of the Queen with a safety pin through her lip.  Britain in the 1970’s was a very patriotic place.  The British public loved the Queen and this image of Cecil Beaton’s portrait which had been defaced by the installation of a safety pin outrage society.  The Sex Pistols

lyrics declaring the Queen was fascist and was not human was another hard hit at British society and the dominant culture.  This attack with clear disregard for the consequences undermined authority.  The Sex Pistols also professed England did not have a future, ‘NO FUTURE’, the decline of Britain had taken its toll on the working classes and the Pistols were the weapon against the state.  Their declaration

”No mercy, no compromise – and No Future.” 

“The British media condemned the band (Sex Pistols), and the larger punk movement, as violent threats to British society; and British politicians raged against this perceived threat to civil order and morality.” Ferrell, 1995

In order for the ‘state’ to retrieve hegemony, Punk had to be acknowledged and absorbed into culture for it to become less powerful.  This was achieved by society accepting Punk so that it lost its edge.  This removal started by the acceptance of punk fashion into society.  The Zandra Rhodes collection introduced punk chic into the mainstream culture which started the punk decline.  

“This “semiotic guerilla warfare” is doomed to fail, mainstream culture will either incorporate (and thus destroy) a subculture or the subculture will conveniently be labelled as being too exotic to be taken seriously.”  The adoption of the mundane objects such as safety pins and razors were transformed into gold objects of adornment.  The Punk edge had been softened.  It was no longer a threat, culture had absorbed its essence and with that came the demise of the Sex Pistols.

The death of the Punk subculture was inevitable and subcultures since then have no room to evolve as Punk did because they are commodified and repackaged for mass culture, the dominant culture, so these exotic outlets are seemingly controlled and hegemony is retained.  All this said there does seem to be a subculture which is causing ripples within society which is receiving a lot of negative attention.  This subculture is EMO.

EMO

The initial beginnings of the musical genre EMO, like Punk, are open to debate although research points that the first wave began in Washington DC.   Spawned from the demise of DC Hardcore Punk around 1985 as Radin states in the “Revolution Summer” the EMO music acquired its name from the lengthier title ‘emotional hardcore’.  The sound was like punk, hard and fast, yet it had more emotional, lyrical, melodic qualities that were given the initial abbreviation of ‘emocore’ before transferring to EMO.  The influential bands at the time according to Radin were “Rites of Spring and Moss Icon”.  Numerous others developed under the ‘Dischord Records’ label during the 1980’s.  This first wave continued into the mid 1990’s when in 1994 a new genre of the music branched into what would be known as indie emo.  This off shoot of EMO was inspired by Dischord Record’s, Fugazi which continued until the turn of the millennium.

Entering the third wave in the year 2000, EMO has now evolved into more than music.  It, for many, has become a lifestyle and image, incorporating a fusion of Goth, punk and skater styles that during the beginning of the 21st century has seen Britain’s youth culture adopt and transform into a subculture that has to be recognised on some level whether positive or negative.

With this recognition, a host of assumptions and stereotypes have accompanied it during the last 6 years and people have definite preconceived ideas.  These are namely that the subcultures participants are somewhat depressed, suicidal, have a tendency to self harm and suffer from eating disorders.  Their dark clothing and supposed emotional approach to life has come under attack from culture and other subcultures.  The boys are seen to be weak for showing emotion and are therefore targeted as being gay and socially unacceptable.

Because of the stereotypes, associations and the general commodification by fashion designers and high street stores it has become difficult to determine exactly what EMO is and who EMO’s are.  As discussed earlier culture absorbs subculture so that they are unable to become overly exotic.  The high street fashion stores sell typical EMO clothing and accessories which are then adopted by none EMO’s reaffirming that subcultural fashion is immediately distributed in the high street.  This has made it difficult to determine a who’s who, hence my practical title, ‘Finding EMO’.  Members of the subculture have distanced themselves from it, bands and groups will not associate themselves with the term and attack the youth subculture no end, ridiculing freedom of expression and pushing EMO ‘into the closet’.   The line between culture and subculture is therefore blurred and harder to define and we are left to identify the members by other forms such as body modification, incorporating tattoos and piercings which are again not exclusively EMO.  The denial then that anything EMO is EMO by EMOs makes the subcultures identity ever more difficult to decipher and pinpoint.  This is achieved by the satirical internet presence of numerous

‘How to dress EMO’ sites which are seemingly controlled by EMOs and have a definite EMO community presence.

The dominant rise of the internet has increased transatlantic exchanges creating a more global apparel within EMO culture.  Web sites like myspace.com have become a haven for EMOs to express themselves, indulging their narcissistic personalities with receipt of adornment from like minded ‘friends’.  Their photographs are taken with a definite style, the camera capturing the subject from a dominant high view, resulting in the obscure image of the subjects face.  This is usually achieved by holding the camera above the head at arms length, creating a dynamic image with great perspective.  Alongside this positive aspect of expression comes the abuse of the internet where attackers download the images from peoples profiles and create anti EMO campaigns, such as videos and virals accompanied by abusive and generally homophobic language.

EMO seemingly has caused a disruption not only within society but amongst other subcultures and has been subject to critique by both, receiving a great deal of negative press.

Application of Theory

The EMO subculture as discussed has received a huge amount of negative press recently and there has been numerous videos and viral animations attacking the subculture.  Message-boards on the internet are inundated with obscene remarks against the EMO community

My investigation into the ‘EMO’ scene. became an ethnographic study of the subculture which I hoped would give me an insight into the interests and function of the movement.  Producing qualitative results, I interviewed a selection of youths across Leeds, Bradford and Manchester capturing a good range of video data, focusing on their style, accessories, general attire and attitude.

Whilst observing the members of the subculture I began to draw comparisons from Hebdige’s analysis of the Punks.  I discovered that the girls refused to give into the ‘masterful gaze’ by holding hands and creating an air of sexual uncertainty.  Their outward displays of affection in public defied ‘normal’ behaviour forcing society to acknowledge them.  Like the Punks, EMO boys are incredibly androgynous.  Their slight frames accentuated through their attire of skinny fit jeans and T-shirts which are too small accompanied by various avant-garde hairstyles, are generally attacked for looking feminine with comments like “EMO fag” and other homophobic rants. The boys openly flirt with homosexuality creating  again more sexual uncertainty which the females tend to find attractive.  This suggestive behaviour undermines typical hegemonic masculinity, although the subjects are heterosexual, their polymorphous behaviour is again comparative to Hebdige’s Punks.   Both sexes were were equally nihilistic enjoying an array of alcohol and party lifestyle, whilst the boys were far more indulgent in drugs such as marijuana and far more serious about the music element than their female counterparts who had a broader taste in music.  I found that all EMOs were passionate and respectful of their friends expressing how important they were across the regions.

My aim was to produce a range of moving image pieces to communicate the fact that these members of this youth culture are in fact no different from any other youth culture be it past or present.  I wanted to show that beneath their clothing their attitude, interests and social behaviour they were akin to other youth groups / subcultures and that people could find an affinity with the group and relate to them rather than target them.  Aiming to dispel the myths behind this subculture and relieve any stereotypes and misconceptions people have the ambiguous nature of the video combined with the sound gives the viewer the opportunity to build up an image of the translated subject matter.  The piece hopes to challenge stereotypes through a series of short clips that eventually build up to create a picture of the EMO culture.

Conclusion

My investigation into subculture has led me to the conclusion that it is for ever changing yet ever staying the same.  This contradictory claim is backed by the historical evidence of subcultural and cultural warfare.  The fact that hegemonic ideologies are transferred from mainstream culture into subcultural groups which then form attacks upon each other, emulating  culturally ‘acceptable’ roles.  It is these adapted roles that subcultures currently emulate and defy simultaneously which lead them into acceptable culture, namely adulthood.  It is safe to say the importance of subculture is to determine where one sits within the dominant culture and how one establishes their role.  This said I do not believe that dominant culture is necessarily a positive transference as this clearly promotes stereotypes and prejudices which subcultures aim to dispel yet sadly the journey into adulthood sees the emulation and dissemination of these negative aspects.

My series of sequences communicates a more positive side of the supposed EMO ‘way of life’ which I am sure can be transferred across the board, dispersing an unknown, yet more realistic positive point of view.

Bibliography

ATKINSON, M. (2006) Straightedge Bodies and Civilizing Processes. Body Society, 12, 69-95.

CLARK, D. (2003) The Death and Life of Punk, The Last Subculture, Oxford, Berg.

DAKERS, C. (2005) Bloomsbury Rooms: Modernism, Subculture, and Domesticity. J Design Hist, 18, 311-313.

FERRELL, J. (1995) Culture, Crime, and Cultural Criminology. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 3.

FITZPATRICK, P. (2000) Just Drifting.  Situationism and Rock.

GUNN, J. & BRUMMETT, B. (2004) Popular Communication After Globalization. J Commun, 54, 705-721.

HAENFLER, R. (2004) Rethinking Subcultural Resistance: Core Values of the Straight Edge Movement. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 33, 406-436.

HALBERSTAM, J. (1999) Oh Bondage Up Yours! Female Masculinity and the Tomboy

HEBDIGE, D. (1979) Subculture: The Meaning of Style, London, Routledge.

HEBDIGE, D. (1988) “Hiding in the Light” Comedia, London

HENRY, T. (1989) Break all rules! Punk rock and the making of a style, University of Michigan Research Press.

JOHNSON, S. (2005) The London Look: Fashion from Street to Catwalk. J Design Hist, 18, 397-399.

KINGSTON, S. (2000) Jamie Reid, The Artist, The Myth, The Biography, Manchester.

LANGMAN, L. (2003) Culture, Identity and Hegemony: The Body in a Global Age. Current Sociology, 51, 223-247.

LENTINI, P. (2003) Punk’s Origins: Anglo-American syncretism. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 24.

LEVINE, J. (1992) My Enemy, My Love: Man-Hating and Ambivalence in Women’s Lives, New York, Doubleday.

MAZULLO, M. (2000) The Man Whom the World Sold: Kurt Cobain, Rock’s Progressive Aesthetic, and the Challenges of Authenticity. Musical Quarterly, 84, 713-749.

MCLAREN, M. (1997) Personal History: Elements of Anti-Style. New Yorker.

MCLEOD, K. (1999) Authenticity within hip-hop and other cultures threatened with assimilation. J Commun, 49, 134-150.

MOORE, A. F. (2001) CATEGORICAL CONVENTIONS IN MUSIC DISCOURSE: STYLE AND GENRE. Music and Letters, 82, 432-442.

PARK, H. W. (1998) A Gramscian approach to interpreting international communication. J Commun, 48, 79-99.

RADIN, A. What the heck “is”emo anyway?[online] Available from: http://www.fourfa.com/[28 August 2006]

RILEY, S. (2002) III. A Feminst construction of Body Art as a Harmful Cultural Practice: A Response to Jeffreys. Feminism Psychology, 12, 540-545.

SCHIPPERS, M. (2000) The Social Organization of Sexuality and Gender in Alternative Hard Rock: An Analysis of Intersectionality. Gender Society, 14, 747-764.

STANBRO, S. Language and Style: Print Representations of Punk/Hardcore Culture.

STOLPER, P. & WILSON, A. (2004) No Future: SEX, Seditionaries and the Sex Pistols, London, The Hospital.

STRINATI, D. (1995) An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture, London, Routledge.

TRIGGS, T. (2006) Scissors and Glue: Punk Fanzines and the Creation of a DIY Aesthetic. J Design Hist, 19, 69-83.

VANDORSTON, A. S. (1990) A History of Punk. Fast and Bulbous Webzine.

VARIOUS (1997) Reviews and criticism. J Commun, 47, 152-171.

WILLIAMS, J. P. (2006) Authentic Identities: Straightedge Subculture, Music, and the Internet. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 35, 173-200.

 

Endnotes

1 http://www.hicksville.co.nz/Hutch%20Owen%20preface.htm

2 http://www.vh1.com/artists/az/mclaren_malcolm/bio.jhtml

3 http://www.mital-u.ch/PunkWave/index.html

4 http://www.vh1.com/artists/az/new_york_dolls/bio.jhtml

5 http://www.nostalgiacentral.com/music/newyorkdolls.htm

6 http://www.nostalgiacentral.com/music/newyorkdolls.htm

7 http://www.mital-u.ch/PunkWave/index.html

8 http://www.persolvang.no/Tekst/Maclaren.html

9 http://www.theory.org.uk/ctr-gram.htm

10 www.polsis.uq.edu.au/dialogue/vol-1-2-5.pdf

11 http://www.fashionencyclopedia.com/Vi-Z/Westwood-Vivienne.html

12 I groaned with pain as he eased the pressure removing the thing which had split me and then, his huge hands grasping me at the hips my blonde hair forming a pool on the dark wood between his feet, he raised me to doting love soothing the bleeding lips and causing the tearing commotion at my loins to subside in a soft corrosion. (SEX, 1974/75)

13 God save the queen

The fascist regime

They made you a moron

Potential H-bomb

 

God save the queen

She ain’t no human being

There is no future

In England’s dreaming

 

Don’t be told what you want

Don’t be told what you need

There’s no future, no future,

No future for you

 

God save the queen

We mean it man

We love our queen

God saves

 

God save the queen

‘Cause tourists are money

And our figurehead

Is not what she seems

 

Oh God save history

God save your mad parade

Oh Lord God have mercy

All crimes are paid

 

When there’s no future

How can there be sin

We’re the flowers in the dustbin

We’re the poison in your human machine

We’re the future, you’re future

 

God save the queen

We mean it man

We love our queen

God saves

 

God save the queen

We mean it man

And there is no future

In England’s dreaming

 

No future, no future,

No future for you

No future, no future,

No future for me

 

No future, no future,

No future for you

No future, no future

For you

14 http://www.hicksville.co.nz/Hutch%20Owen%20preface.htm

15 www.iias.nl/oideion/journal/issue02/kloet/3.html

16 http://www.geocities.com/howtodressemo/

17 http://sykospark.net/emo/

Digital Divide

Inclusive design of digital television

Executive Summary

Television, a global media that has the ability to target the majority of the world, with the rise of technological advances in the twenty first century, is turning digital, and the Government’s proposed switchover between now and 2012 will shape the future of this commodity, opening a host of opportunities.  The increased durability of the digital signal will see communication services highly enhanced, creating a great deal of opportunities for digital companies.

These technological advancements are necessary, but to what extent?  The ‘digital divide’ is becoming ever more apparent for a majority of people who are excluded from these developments.  These people come from a variety of age, social groups, gender and ability, nevertheless they are excluded.

One specific group is the over-65s and within this group are a majority who suffer from visual impairments, disabilities, mobility issues and cognitive problems.  90% of people with impaired eyesight are over 65, most of which rely on television as a means of entertainment, information and company.  The future foresees over 50% of the population being over 50 who have 80% of the nation’s wealth.  No longer is Pareto’s 80 / 20 rule in place anymore within this ageing society.  This is a clear majority, one who business and design will have to cater for.Movie Fifty Shades Darker (2017)

Designers, therefore must consider this ever increasing majority and begin to create inclusive products, spaces and designs.

Research

Inclusive Design is not exclusive to people with impairments or that have reached a certain age but a form of design that incorporates everybody, ‘inclusive’.

There is one group of people that plays host to a variety of stereotypes and discrimination, the ‘old’.  This discriminate act is usually called ageism.

“a process of systematic stereotyping of and discrimination against people because they are old . . . Old people are categorised as senile, rigid in thought and manner, old-fashioned in morality and skills . . . Ageism allows the younger generation to see older people as different from themselves, thus they subtly cease to identify with their elders as human beings.

Ageism, like all prejudices, influences the self-view and behaviour of its victims.  The elderly tend to adopt negative definitions of themselves and perpetuate the very stereotypes directed against them, thereby reinforcing society’s beliefs.”

(Butler 1975)[i]

[ii]“The term “ageism” was coined in 1969 by Robert Butler” it’s comparison was with other forms of discrimination at the time like racism and sexism although the form has changed somewhat now it is seen now as any form of discrimination against, what was once a minority group.  The Concise English Dictionary describes ageism as [iii]“prejudice or discrimination on the grounds of a person’s age.”

Getting old is a journey we all have to face, and we shall achieve great things along the way.  It can take many forms and it is individual specific although the end result is the same, we get old, it’s the way we deal with it that is different.  With this blessing called age, apparently, comes wisdom, but also with age comes a variety of misunderstandings, impairments, loss of functionality and understanding.  Some modern day affairs are incomprehensible for some of our ageing population, as will eventually be for us.

In ‘modern’ times we can establish that the prejudices ‘old’ people face are quite apparent as there are a lack of positive older role models within advertising and television and a definite sense of stereotyping into certain roles, for example, ‘dirty old man’.  This eradication of older people from our screens is not the only problem, twenty-first century advances are posing a threat to the ageing population’s television viewing.

Problem

The population of the UK in mid-2004 was 59 834 300, England was responsible for just over 50% of which the average age was 38.  This high average is due to our ageing population.  The National Statistics Online UK states [iv]“there were 20.0 million people aged 50 and over in the UK in 2003” and the figure is predicted to increase to a whopping [v] 27.2 million which is an increase of 36% in 2031.  Currently, the Nation has more people over the age of 60 than it does below 16 as the youth population has been in decline for a while, accounting for only 20%.  There were 17% of people over 65 and the population was 5.5% over 85  which is said to increase a considerable amount in future years, although the gender divide will be less than it is now as there are currently 100 women to every 85 men for this age group.  It is thought that over the next two decades the population between 50 and 65 is to increase by a staggering 20% whilst there shall be a fall of 5% between the ages of 25 to 39.

This increase is not only due to the mortality rate but also to the fertility rate and also the impacting growth of immigrants within the UK.   It is clear then that the [vi]”UK has an ageing population” and there needs to be considerations made when designing for future markets not only for age but race and gender also.

Older people tend to have multiple minor impairments/disabilities such as poor eyesight as 90% of the population who are blind or partially sighted are over 65 but these are not exclusive to age as some ‘disabled’ people share these impairments as so does a selection of the young population.  Oliver states “The social model of disability argues that disability is not some form of personal deficiency but is actually created by environments, products and services that fail to cater for the needs of their potential users.”

[vii]”With over 10 million disabled people in the UK and an estimated £80 billion to spend, taking action to provide equal access to goods and services is financially rewarding as well as morally right and legally correct.

 

Some facts and figures back this up:

 

* There are over 10 million disabled people in the UK.

* They have £80 billion annual spending power.

* 70% of disabled people are over 60 years old.

* Almost 75% of the Nation’s wealth is held by the over 50s.

* £184 billion of annual income is earned by the over 50s.

* More than 360,000 disabled people are under 16.”

The ageing population not only face the hurdles of life but also the consequences of a ‘poor’ education.  As Newnham discusses “around a third of people aged between 56 and 64 in the south-east of England have below level 2 (GCSE equivalent) qualifications, compared with 10.4 percent of people aged 16-25.”  The ageing population valued work and experience over education.  Alike the minor impairments poor education is not exclusive to the ‘old’ as Sherriff describes “Income, education and age as the biggest factors in creating the digital divide,…poor, badly educated people are still lagging behind…Still, they’ve got women and old people for company”

As technology is forever improving and becoming more advanced there is a constant increase that these people may become alienated from it.  One of those technical advances being the future of ‘Television’ and during the period 2008 – 2012, depending, the government will be switching to digital television and analogue shall be no more.  Digital television boasts a variety of enhancements compared to analogue, the benefits of which should be clearly made available to everybody but are these options catered for our ever growing ageing population.  It has an improved picture and sound quality and an array of interactive services, including e-mail.  This switchover is occurring whether one likes it or not, a concept bedazzling the majority of the ageing population, incorporating a lot of stress and worry into the transition that needs to take place.  For this transition to take place the introduction of new products, televisions and digital receiving devices are necessary for which need an amount of technical ability and understanding.

[viii]Ninety six percent of over 75 age group watch television every day as a source of entertainment, information and a reliable connection to the outside world of ‘what’s going on’.  The Government introduced free television licenses to the over 75s in November 2000 which has given television the opportunity to become a tool for social inclusion but these recent developments into switching off analogue could create exclusion.

Methodology

My investigation hopes to uncover how two of the UK’s digital suppliers aim to include the ageing population within their design.  My research has been based on government statistical findings and in-depth reports highlighting various elements of inclusive and exclusive design.

Findings

Information is freely available on the web with regards to the crossover, but the ageing consumer, who is becoming a majority, does not necessarily surf the web, have access, the ability or the inclination, as findings show according to the Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General only [ix]17% of the population over 65 had surfed the web compared to 94% of 16-24-year-olds.  For the majority of the ageing population, television is television, the old fashioned analogue type.  They have no need for interactive services or these complications.  In a recent report [x]Multichannel vs Terrestrial Household Lifestyles – UK – July 2004 highlighted that approximately 40% of UK adults had no interest in digital television.  The groups in this high percentage were females, over-65s and the lowest social group.  A clear majority, 75% of the over-65s have only terrestrial television at home, accompanied by 66% of the lowest socio-economic group which could prove to be a problem for the Government to completely switch off analogue television as these majority groups could well be reluctant to switch to digital television as they may not have the skills or the finances.

[xi]“Yet many of those yet to go digital are exactly the people that the State has a duty to protect – the elderly, the disabled, the poorest.  They have in many cases the most to gain from a fully digital world. And we have to make sure they aren’t left behind.”  Tessa Jowell

To tackle the digital divide the Government in September 2005, alongside the BBC, with funding from the license fee, a scheme has been created to ensure people are not excluded from the switchover.  The scheme will provide free equipment and installation for the over-75s, people with significant disabilities and people of the lowest socio-economic group who are on Income Support, Job Seeker’s Allowance or Pension Credit.

To ensure a smooth switchover to digital, the Government’s, Department for Culture Media and Sport has teamed up with numerous charities and organisations including the RNIB, the RNID, Age Concern, Help the Aged and the Consumers’ Association – along with the Department for Work and Pensions and the BBC.  Together they have produced a follow-up support package for the over-75s and people with significant disabilities.

Technology is a complicated affair and with this introduction of digital television, although bringing a vast array of benefits will be accompanied by a host of confusion unless the functionality is comprehensible, not only by 16-24-year-olds but by everyone, ‘inclusive’.

Case Studies

As discussed this transition into the digital age will bring a plethora of technological gizmos and gadgets that will ‘enhance’ your life.  Digital television needs to be controlled and to do this requires a remote control.

The ‘remote control’ (although used in the war), was first designed for the television in the 1950’s and was called [xii]“Lazy Bone.”  The ‘Lazy Bone’ was not wireless like today’s examples but had a bulky wired implement that consumers were prone to tripping on.  The remote has moved on a lot since then, instead of being a luxury in the 1950’s, it became a common accessory in the 1980’s.  The remote control is a great invention especially for people with mobility problems.  It means the viewer can control the television, set-top box or other electrical device without having to leave the comfort of their chair making the television more accessible.  Now the 21st century plays host to the advancement of digital television and the remote control has very many  more jobs to do.  The capabilities of digital television consist of a vast range of information and entertainment services such as

Entertainment

TV guide (electronic programme guide, EPG)

social contact e.g. email

interactive / online games with remote viewers

enhanced programmes e.g. voting on outcomes / issues

shopping

video on demand

live interactive sport e.g. altering viewing angles

talking books / radio

Information

current affairs e.g. news, financial information

interactive non-broadcast content e.g. healthcare advice

websites / TV portals

interactive advertising

courses / learning

search for jobs / holidays etc.

 

These complex digital enhancements offer the user the options but can the user ‘use’ the technology?  These on-screen user interfaces are [xiii]“based on web technologies” which bring an array of difficulties as displaying these menus on low-resolution televisions is quite difficult as British television has a resolution of 720px by 576px of which only 80% can be used to display text successfully.  This requires the user to be intuitive and have the ability to understand the screens and navigate successfully through this interactive maze.  The user also has to understand the remote control to be able to control the screen.  This will most probably involve the user changing glasses to more appropriate reading glasses as stated earlier 90% of people with impaired eyesight are over 65 most of which rely on television.

To create a good ‘design’ requires knowledge and to acquire this a great deal of research and investigation is necessary.  You need to know your consumer, and the television audience is massive, containing every type of being, it is a heterogeneous audience which has many different user requirements. Although moving to a definite digital age is relatively new the technology has been around for some time and a company utilising that technology is Sky.

sky

BSkyB have been a leader in television for over a decade now and their name and brand identity immediately recognisable.  In the early years their analogue satellite receiving equipment was constructed by six different companies.  This created six different remote controls causing a great deal of confusion, not creating a cohesive brand identity.  Deciding to unify the look of  their handset, Frazer Designers were commissioned in 1996 to design the British Sky Broadcasting remote control.

Frazer are a company that have spanned 25 years in the design business and are pioneers in their field.  They have conceptualised and constructed some of the most influential pieces of design in the last three decades.

[xiv]“Sky’s brief to Frazer was for ‘the most comfortable and easy-to-use remote ever for males and females between the ages of five and 80’, to operate an electronic programme guide (EPG) that ‘any new user should be able to learn 70% of… within 15 minutes’.”

 

Sky’s approach of wanting a functional, inclusive design is highly commendable.  They know their target market and nobody is excluded.

Over the following two years Frazer, the top London design company researched heavily into creating one of the UK’s most prevalent objects.

Their initial strategy was to forget all other designs of remote and go back to basics.  Frazer embarked on their initial part of research which explored current issues regarding the use of a remote control.  Through focus groups they acquired qualitative results on how the remote was used in relation to the television.  This gave them an insight into what aspects of the remotes worked best and hone in on all the positive aspects and establish the negative ones.

[xv] “Frazer looked at the following issues” using ergonomics, a practice that ensures harmonious relationship between user and product.

•      Format – should the remote be rectangular, square, round or portrait?

•      Handset sculpting and form

•      Shape, number and size of buttons

•      Relationship of functions to the Electronic Programming Guide (EPG)

•      Position of buttons relative to each other and the handset

•      Contours of the keyboard surface

•      Weight and balance Colour and contrast of buttons, case and graphics.

 

Analysing the data,  they could determine how the device was handled, whether it was comfortable and used with ease.  How it sat in the hand, functioned, which buttons were used and how often.  All these factors would be influential in the design process.

One of the main problems with remotes is buttons and their function as there are usually far more buttons than people use.  Determining from the research Frazer proceeded to organise the functions into three categories and how they were used and the frequency these were then organised into three main formations on the remote control according to the three different pushing methods.

The decision for the shape was stick format, chosen to [xvi]“avoid bias”  ensuring it could be used with ease by both left and right handed users.  Thirty foam models of varying shapes, contours and sizes created.  Buttons were then placed on the remote accordingly.

[xvii]“Infrequently used functions such as the main system set-up, On/Off and Sky service options were positioned in the index finger zone.  The most frequently used functions – navigation, channel, volume, mute and back up – were arranged to fall under the user’s thumb.  The alpha-numeric functions were positioned closest to the user so they could be operated using the two-handed method in which buttons are pressed with one hand and the remote is held with the other.”

A series of focus groups were then arranged, where the participants would engage with the dummy remotes, blindfolded.  This was so they would not be influenced by the colour or shape of the remote, visually, but that they would have a tactile uninfluenced response.  The respondents were asked a series of questions

[xviii]“Which do you think is the right way up?

Which do you think is the front?

Which shape do you find most comfortable?”

From the data collected Frazer were able to pick out the most common honest answers and form a further design decision.  This time the answers were created into a group of 6 sculpted models which underwent further blindfolded focus groups.  These groups were more intuitive and entailed the participant to mould the interface into a more comfortable shape, change the position of the keys and the place where the batteries was stored.   These further alterations of user interactivity were recorded and influential in the final design.

The battery compartment was greatly considered and made into a design feature.   Constructed from a harder material than the rest ensured it had a longer life and more durable.  The compartment was covered by a softer tactile rubber.  The placement of this battery compartment and tactile feature which sits in the palm of your hand was to help the user to find the designed orientation of the product to enhance usability it also stops the remote from slipping as a researchers at [xix]Cambridge Engineering Design Centre found.

The buttons were designed chunky to be accessible by people with impaired flexibility, the spacing between enough to ensure only one button was pressed at a time.  Which is quite a problem for people with dexterity issues.  The sky remote houses 34 buttons of which colours were kept to a minimum.  Graphics work together with the tactile indicators such as bumps and tiny dots which are great indicators for partially sighted people.  However the font size and abbreviations are quite small and the white text on the bright jade green seems difficult to read.  These buttons are the ‘important’ digital interactive service buttons which seem to warn rather than invite its user, especially those who are technologically uninformed.

The sky remote though is well informed and has a great deal of research and user involvement behind it.

[xx]“Frazer claims that the flat and balanced shape and the configuration of the buttons make the Sky product the most ergonomic remote handset ever created.”

This piece of design took over 9 months to develop cost £250, 000 which seems a small price to pay as the remote sits in over five million homes of which there has only been 100 returns.  This enforces sky’s brand as a sign of quality.

This is a clear example of great product design and innovation.  The Sky consumer and prospective consumers were all taken into consideration making this piece of design a well informed inclusive part of the household.  Sky are continuing to improve their remote control and are currently working alongside SCOPE and Age Concern to develop an even more inclusive handset.

ntl

[xxi]“ntl is committed to improving the products and services offered to all customers including disabled customers.”

The ntl remote boasts to have been created inclusively [xxii]“to make it easier to use for disabled customers.”

At first glance, the slender torpedo shaped handset looks quite hard and uninviting yet the shape of the underneath is curved and split into two sections.  The contours of which fit comfortably into the palm of both hands giving opportunity for a firm hold if the remote needs to be operated by two hands.

The ntl remote has 39 buttons a third more than an average remote.  Alike the Sky remote the buttons have been divided into three distinct sections.

The bottom section consists of the alphanumeric keypad of which the ‘5’ key has a raised bump as [xxiii]“the majority of visually impaired people tended to use numerical keys” to change the channel, so this identifier helps the user to navigate.  This is not a new invention and I would have expected this to come as standard.  Also in this bottom section is the clearly identifiable ‘Fastext’ buttons displayed in red, green, yellow and blue.  Although the same colour, these buttons have taken on a new function within the digital realm in comparison to the analogue text.  Their function opens an array of digital interactive services, such as the common ‘press red’ that appears on the screen.

The next section on the control is the middle section which houses the main navigation buttons.  The central button is a wide oval shape with ‘ok’ and ‘select’ of a reasonable sized font approximately 10pt.  The position of this button reflects its importance as the surrounding buttons are for the navigation, containing arrows / triangles which point in the varying directions, up, down, left and right.  Framing these buttons either side to the left are the two ‘VOLUME’ and right the two CHANNEL’ buttons.  They are all four silver in colour, a completely different shape and have a slight raised bump on each.  Within the two lower buttons the bump contains a minus sign (-) and the two buttons above, a plus (+).  This tactile element adds another easily identifiable way to navigate and control your viewing.

There are 14 other buttons placed in the top section of the remote, including the power button.  This button contains a light which activates when the buttons are pressed.  The light has 2 colours red, this indicates to the user that a button is being pressed and something should happen to the ntl cable set top box and green which indicates a button is again being pressed but the remote is communicating with the television.

Just below the power button to the left is the ‘help’ button which when pressed opens up the help section of the EPG where users can research into how to use their remote and interface successfully.  This all be it a simple task requires the user to be aware of the functioning of screen based navigation and interactivity.  The ‘help’ is written in lower case approximately 8pt type as are all the other labels in this top section.  These are quite difficult to read, as they are written in pale grey on grey and blue buttons.

Although claiming to be ‘inclusive’ the ntl remote has come under scrutiny, as researchers at the [xxiv]Cambridge Engineering Design Centre undertook a qualitative research project highlighting the problems with remote controls.  The ntl remote was considered difficult to handle and unintuitive.  There tended to be a delayed response between the user pressing the button and the set top box.  This led to confusion and having to repress the button harder to ensure a response.  The top section of buttons were ignored as the user had no indication what they were for and were generally happy with the knowledge that they could use the numeric keypad to access the usual terrestrial channels.

Although clearly not as ergonomically designed as the sky remote the ntl device has obviously taken some inspiration from its competitor.  The button layout for the navigation and ok /select buttons is in the same arrangement although the sky directional buttons are more intuitive as they are shaped as the arrows rather than the small painted on ones of the ntl.  The channel and volume buttons are too in similar places, this is an area where the ntl remote is successful as they have not abbreviated as have sky, ensuring better readability for the user.  The sky remote however uses rubber for its buttons which is far more tactile and intuitive compared to the hard plastic used by ntl.  The sky’s help button is positioned in an easy access place, amongst the frequently used buttons unlike ntl’s which requires the use of the index finger as understood by the research performed by Frazer is a place what doesn’t get used much this does not make it easy for people with dexterity issues who will be the people who most need the help.  The EPG interactive buttons on both remotes are a contrasting colour to the housing although the position is far superior on the sky remote, reflecting the months of research carried out.  The sky remote is still not totally inclusive although they are continuing to work with leading organisations and charities to resolve resounding issues and have again commissioned Frazer for another two remotes.  This is clearly a great working partnership whose consumer considerations are pro active reflecting inclusive design and great design management.

Conclusion

People are currently happy without digital television, although their lives will be enhanced through the ability to shop, make transactions, have audio enhancements, stay in touch and the rest of these wonderful things that digital television will bring, there needs to be more emphasis on the design and interaction between user and technology if these services are to be introduced and used efficiently.

Efforts are clearly being made to include everyone in the digital age although there definitely needs to be more understanding to ensure the requirements of everybody are taken into consideration.  We can see from these companies that inclusive design is taking shape and consideration is being given to guidelines set out by the RNIB, SCOPE, Age Concern and Help the Aged.  There does however, need to be more thought given to the construction of these devices, as technology is forever advancing we should maybe consider how we can make technology simple and user-friendly.  Designers need to ‘put themselves in everybody’s shoes’ to ensure a successful product.  The people who they are excluding are the people with the majority of wealth, who have more of a disposable income and are spending rather than saving for a rainy day.  To increase spending designers need to ensure everything is inclusive.

This essay has been designed to take into consideration the reading needs of older people, the typeface Gill Sans has been used along with indented paragraphs to ensure a more fluid readability.

Bibliography

Butler, R. N. (1975). “Psychiatry and the elderly: An overview.” American Journal of Psychiatry, 132, 893-900.

Butler, R. N. (1975). Why survive? Being old in America. New York: Harper & Row

Newnham, David. TES LEARNING REFORMS , Older Learners, Chain Reaction. MAY 19 2006

Oliver M., The Politics of Disablement, Palgrave Macmillan, 1990. Cited in Etchelland, Lindsey and  Yelding, David. Inclusive design: products for all consumers. CONSUMER POLICY REVIEW NOV/DEC 2004 • VOLUME 14 • NUMBER 6

Sherriff, Lucy. “Poor left stranded by digital divide.” <http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/02/14/poor_pcless_eu_report/>

 


[i] Overcoming ageism in service design and delivery

Paper presented at Aged Care for the New Millennium

Aged Care Conference Melbourne 26-28 July 1999

Patricia Reeve

[ii] http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~aging/ModuleAgeism.html

[ii] “ageism n.”  The Concise Oxford English Dictionary. Ed. Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson. Oxford University Press, 2004. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.  13 June 2006  <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t23.e930>

[iii] Population estimates, Office for National Statistics

Population projections, Government Actuary’s Department

Census 2001, Office for National Statistics

Census 2001, General Register Office for Scotland

Notes:

Unless otherwise stated older people refers to those aged 50 years and over.

Published on 22 November 2005 at 9:30 am

[v] Government response to Aspects of the Economics of an Ageing Population. London : The Stationery Office Limited. 2004 (The Numbers Game: Older people and the media report, Independent Television Commission, 2002)

[viii] Mary Bellis http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blremotecontrols.htm

[viii] http://www.456bereastreet.com/archive/200512/accessibility_and_usability_for_interactive_television/

[ix] http://www.designcouncil.org.uk/webdav/harmonise?Page/@id=6048&Session/@id=D_BeikW8mvdjRSkC2QD7Tv&Document/@id=4768

[xi] http://www.designcouncil.org.uk/webdav/harmonise?Page/@id=6048&Session/@id=D_HDO7WRQxmCDL5hicRByI&Document/@id=4768

[xii] http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/inclusivedesign/index.php?section=introduction&page=ex-remote

[xiii] http://www.designcouncil.org.uk/webdav/harmonise?Page/@id=6048&Session/@id=D_HDO7WRQxmCDL5hicRByI&Document/@id=4768

[xiv] http://www.home.ntl.com/page/epgaccessibilitystat

[xv] http://www.home.ntl.com/page/epgaccessibilitystat

[xvi] http://www.tiresias.org/reports/brighton.htm

The Representation of Cultural and National Identity

 

Pears’, a company that has nearly been in existence for two hundred years owes its success to not only the founder Andrew Pears but also to Francis Pears, son in law, and Thomas J. Barratt, a man often referred to as the father of modern advertising. Andrew Pears initially identified the cultural stigma attached to a tanned face, as this was seen to be associated with the lower classes and those who toiled with manual labour. Not only was this tanned face established from work but also from the use of inferior, harsh soaps which were then used by the upper classes. Through this abrasion caused by soap the indistinguishable colour of class was established. Andrew recognised the necessity to create a purer more gentle soap. Spotting this gap in the marketplace he continued to create a superior product to fill it. Pears product was so exclusive and expensive that he personally signed each package he sold. Thomas J. Barratt, who had married Francis Pears’ eldest daughter Mary was a risk taker, whose aggressive vision and foresight saw the revolution of the distribution of Pears products. His vision of modern advertising was to think in terms of weeks, and the campaigns to change direction like yachts in a strong breeze. His highly original publicity schemes greatly improved the company?s sales. Through extensive advertising and promotion Barratt convinced as many people as possible to purchase Pears. His radical methods struck fear into Francis Pears and he left his son and Barratt in sole charge of the business with £4000 as a loan. Barratt forced the manufacturing world to see the ad-vantages of paying good money for good advertising; in the 1880s Pears were spending between 30,000 and, 40,000 pounds a year on advertising and by 1907 the figure had risen to 126,000. Even advertising took up the phrase. Pears’ Soap claimed to be “a potent factor in brightening the dark corners of the earth as civilization advances.”

iOnly the pictures themselves changed from time to time, and it is interesting to look at a 1907 newspaper interview with Barratt in which he says:

‘Tastes change, fashions change, and the advertiser has to change with them. An idea that was effective a generation ago would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable if presented to the public today. Not that the idea of today is always better than the older idea, but it is different -it hits the present taste.’

Pears advertising on a whole aimed to provoke an emotional response rather than an intellectual one. It was considered tasteful and restrained. This helped to communicate through art to the working class illiterate masses, not only the exclusivity of the Pears product and its global domination of the soap commodity but the global success of Imperial domestication. Pears advertisements generally used black people as a source of amusement in their use as displacing commodity racism. Thomas J. Barratt aimed, he said, to make his advertisements ‘telling, artistic, picturesque, attractive, pretty, amusing’ -and of course commercially successful.

Barratt joined the Pears company at the time when advertising was seen as an afterthought. Crude handbills, posters and small newspaper advertisements were the basic methods. Barrat?s sophisticated techniques opened up new horizons and he successfully pioneered saturation advertising. Pears soap was everywhere in Victorian and Edwardian times. The image would have been displayed as a poster on hoardings and on railway stations, billboards, buses, shop fronts, newspaper advertisements and leaflets. 3W. E. Gladstone, searching for a metaphor to convey a sense of vast quantity during a debate on a topic now forgotten in the House of Commons, suggested the articles in question were as numerous as the advertisements of Pears Soap, or as autumn leaves in Vallombrosa’. After the end of the campaign the image would then be redisplayed in the Pears cyclopaedia. This form of advertising saw commodity racism delivered to the masses as it had the ability to cover all class systems and introduce art and the news of the apparent colonial conquest and civilising of the natives. The working classes would have been the general audience for this type of image and product as Pears? claimed to remove the dirt associated with the working class. This was particularly predominant with the female members, hence the majority of the advertising slogans had them in mind -‘Matchless for the complexion’, ‘Good morning! Have you used Pears Soap?’ were simple and unchanging, reflecting an era of guiltlessness and security in which the good things in life might reasonably be taken for granted -at least by the more fortunate.

iBarratt evidently had philanthropic as well as commercial motives in bringing art to the public eye: the 1897 edition claimed that: ‘It is beyond controversy that, before the popular advent of Pears Annual, pictures of the refined quality of our Presentation Plates (which surpass any works of even this high” class order ever previously attempted) were unattainable by picture-lovers at anything less than a guinea a-piece.

Our ambition has been to offer an appreciative and increasing public, which has grown to expect these advantages at our hands, presentation pictures of superior quality and of artistic values, to ensure our extended popularity, and to constitute Pears Annual the foremost achievement of this kind . . . ”

His method of delivery was through Pears Annual, which was first published in 1891 continuing until 1920.

The more recent audience for this image would be collectors of nostalgia and advertising enthusiasts Barratt created the association between product and culture. It is with this form of advertising in mind that I wish to discuss the identity established through representation of cultural and national form within an image. My aim is to deconstruct the image and through the removal of its layers perform a semiotic analysis of its elements. These elements are entwined in a multitude of ways and that culture is crucial to the construction of national identity.

My choice of image for discussion is a Pears soap advertisement (Figure 1) of the late nineteenth century where an African woman attempting to bathe her child in a wooden bath on the porch of her wooden house whilst three boys peep around the side of the domicile enjoying the infant’s misfortune. Above their heads on the exterior wall of the home is the previous successful Pears advertisement, ?You Dirty Boy? campaign.

The image was created in the latter part of the nineteenth century, some time after 1878 as the inset image is from the campaign ‘You Dirty Boy’ which was based on a sculpture created in 1877 by Focardi. I cannot establish the exact designer or artist who created the main Pears? soap advertising image I am discussing, but for the time period the artists who created Pears? presentation plates included Frank Dadd, J. C. Dollman, Hugh Thompson, Will Owen (of ‘Bisto Kids’ fame), Maurice Greiffenhagen, Gordon Browne and Tom Browne. Thomas J Barratt, who is often referred to as the father of modern advertising who from 1877 had control of the family firm A & F Pears?iii had a great influence in the plight of bringing art to the masses which confirms the image is post this date.

This form of image finds itself in the genre of advertising although if the typographic elements were to be removed the image would belong within the realm of fine art and painting. The majority of Pears? soap advertisements generally started out life as paintings. The branding of the image and strap line are clearly considered and work harmoniously with the image.

My initial discussion is the image components within the implanted advertisement of the previous successful campaign ‘You Dirty Boy’, which, are not, displayed exactly the same as the original. The original image was an illustration of the statue created by Focardi (Figure 2/3), which was then transformed into a painting (Figure 4). We can see the colours of the woman?s clothing are unlike the one portrayed within the image. In this version it shows the elderly, working class woman dressed in a crisp white apron combined with a red blouse and a blue skirt. This combination of colours reflects the Union Jack communicating the national identity of Britishness, symbolising the Imperial domesticating force that was sweeping the colonies. The young street urchin child she forcefully cleans is partially clothed. He wears trousers and shoes and over them an apron. Not the pristine white the woman is clothed in, but a seemingly dirty apron. This reluctance of the child’s behaviour with regards to being washed echoes the defiance of the cleansing within the colonies. The position of this image is significantly higher than the main subject matter contained within the picture. Through this intertextuality the meaning of the image is transformed as it acts not only as the definition of superiority within the social hierarchies, acting as an example of how to behave but demonstrates that consumer culture is bound through the processes of imperialism, colonialism and whiteness associated with civilisation. The location of the image is embedded within industrial capital relations, which were defined by the imperial power relations (the uneven relationship between the imperial western civilisations and the colonies) this definition is affirmed by the use of UPPER CASE letterforms within the advertisement verifying the dominant position of Imperialism within the social hierarchies and is also reflected through the use of Title Case within the main image containing the natives.

The presence of the previous advertising campaign poster acts as a role model and dictates how the African woman should behave and shown as an image to aspire to. Although her aspirations could never be anything more than working class.

The aspirations to develop into civilised and through the dominant influence of the West, and the heavy influence of Christianity and the aim to become closer to God through the use of soap.

If “Cleanliness is next to Godliness,” soap must be considered as a “Means of Grace” — and a clergyman who recommends moral things, should be willing to recommend Soap. I am told that my commendation of Pears?’ Soap some dozen years ago has assured for it a large sale in the U.S. I am willing to stand by any word in favour of it that I ever uttered. A man must be fastidious indeed who is not satisfied by it. HENRY WARD BEECHER Nov 29, 1882iv

Moving on to the main image we are presented with this display of apparent defiance from a young child whose mother is attempting to bathe him while three young boys find amusement at his misfortune. The African woman and children are presented here as degenerates and their structure portrayed as being only slightly higher than ape like.

The African woman is in brightly coloured attire along with a headscarf. Her dress, which seems traditional, mimics the clothing presented in the poster. Her feet are oversized and the presence of shoes seems incredibly masculine and western and not the typical wear for a woman who would most probably work the fields. The shoes symbolic reference denotes the confusion of cleanliness and dirtiness as in Victorian England; shoes were seen as threshold objects. This element adds to the racist and sexist, masculine portrayal of this ‘degenerate’ woman and the fact that although she has acquired some, she has not yet reached civility. The woman is portrayed in the cultural role of domesticity, as a maid-cum-housewife seen attempting to wash a child. vAlthough her presence within the image is huge her significance culturally, is the visibility of the invisible, as being female, black, working class and presented as a degenerate she is everything hidden within Victorian England. Her character reflects the imperial domestication occurring through the globalisation of the use of soap as a commodity to civilise.

The bath unlike Victorian England is outside, although the material and structure seem to reflect the Pears’ advertisement the bench that the bath is placed on seems solid but of poor construct signifying poverty.

The house appears to be constructed of quite weathered, unfinished wood. The hinge fixtures are quite rusty on the door, which gives the home the look of a stable portraying to the western civilisation the poor way the colonials live unlike the civilised homes of middle class Victorian England whose metal fixtures shone and gleamed like reflective surfaces.

The frying pan is symbolic of a mirror (McClintock, 1995) although this, still dirty and black reflecting the cultural identity, its display in full view affirms the uncivilised behaviour of the woman as in Victorian society cooking utensils and implements that were used in manual labour were never on show as dirt was seen as a scandal. Dirt was seen as an association with waste and disorder while cleanliness with rationality and industry. Inside the house there is what looks to be a nicely polished kitchen chair with carved spindles. This is clearly of better construct than the elements displayed on the porch signifying that the ‘degenerate’ has acquired some western influence within her domicile. The woman through the influence has aspirations of achieving civility through the use of Pears’ soap.

The three children who appear to be laughing at the child, who does not want to be washed, seem to be clean, dressed in smart white clothes and black shiny shoes although are seen as aged and disfigured affirming the portrayal of degeneration. Their appearance seems to be civilised and their positioning within the image defines the dominance of the Pears’ image as the increasing height of each child leads to the advertisement. The children are portrayed as being civilised and ‘domesticated’ no longer savage like animals. Alongside the three children are three chickens sitting on a fence. The hierarchy continues through the representation of the chickens’ domestication who are seen as being fenced in like prisoners. This demonstrates that alongside the domestication and civilising of the colonials they have been given the information on how to become self sufficient through the domestication of animals.

The small child, who does not want to be washed, suggests that the natives are born uncivilised and that until they are washed and clothed they will remain that way. “A person without clothes is a person without language” West African proverb.  Emergent middle class values class control cleansing the great unwashed and the imperial civilising mission “washing and clothing the savage”. (McClintock, 1995) The child?s fist represents the defiance of the colonies in the attempt of Imperial domesticity, yet we see immediately above this sign the dominant presence of Pears? soap confirming the discourses of inequality and power.

Unlike the clear control demonstrated by the working class white woman, appearing in the ‘Dirty Boy’ advertisement, the African woman does not seem to have any power, necessitating the dominance of western civilisation to aid with the domestication of the natives.

The spectator is positioned in a high point of view where they view a chronotope of global history. This is what McClintock (1995) calls ‘panoptical time’. viPanoptical time is a framework of progression evaluated by an overseer in a role of dominance. McClintock (1995) states that the panoptical stance is enjoyed by those in privileged positions in the social structure, to whom the world appears as a spectacle, stage, performance. viiThe image of global history consumed – at a glance – in a single spectacle from a point of privileged invisibility.

This portrayal of colonial life would be interpreted by Western civilisation as how the ‘degenerate’ third world live and that the civilised world was expanding through Imperial domesticity. The image communicates that the company Pears’ has reached the colonies and through the use of soap has begun to civilise the ‘degenerates’. Through the use of commodity racism the company has achieved global domination in partnership with Imperial domesticity and the civilising of the colonies.

In conclusion I feel that racism as a hegemonic ideology, expressed through the display of domesticity portrayed in the use of soap is the apparent social, national and cultural

identity of  ‘Britishness’ within the latter part of the nineteenth century, which Pears’ successfully manufactured and communicated through Imperial domesticity. Thus as domestic commodities were mass marketed through their appeal to imperial jingoism, commodity jingoism itself helped reinvent and maintain British national unity in the face of deepening Imperial competition and colonial resistance. The cult of domesticity became indispensable to the consolidation of British national identity and at the centre of the domestic cult stood the simple bar of soap. (McClintock, 1995)

Dempsey, M. Bubbles; Early Advertising Art From A.&F. Pears Ltd. Glasgow. William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1978

ii http://www.artandarchitecture.org.uk/images/conway/e8362b20.html09/02/2006 15:32

iii http://www.diduknow.info/aotm/displaypicture.asp?venue=7&id=168 (1 of 2)09/02/2006 15:32

iv http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Mintguy/Sandbox

Baldwin, Elaine et al. Introducing Cultural Studies; London; Prentice Hall Europe; 1999

vi http://www.asfar.org/zine/17th/breview.php (1 of 5)09/02/2006 15:34

vii McClintock, Anne, 1954-Imperial leather: race, gender and sexuality in the colonial contest / London ; New York : Routledge, c1995

Bullying

JAY, 15

DARREN, 17

JAKE, 18

 

ABSTRACT

The aim of this research project is to highlight the issues surrounding homophobic bullying within schools and construct a piece of communicative media that engenders a greater awareness of this issues relating to this specific form of bullying.

There are many aspects of bullying, which have been clearly identified within this research. Bullying behaviour often goes unnoticed and can include; name calling and teasing, damage to belongings, excluding people from social activities, spreading malicious rumours, abusive phone calls, text bullying (via your mobile phone), physical bullying or threats. Verbal Physical Extortion Gesturing Exclusion These forms have a proven detrimental effect on a large percentage of children.  Bullying at its most destructive claims lives.  This is clearly unacceptable.

A broad range of both primary and secondary research has been undertaken, with specific relevance being placed on the National Curriculum, its current structure and policies with regards to educating difference and sexual awareness, bullying and homophobic bullying strategies.  Focus has also centred upon existing and contemporary bullying campaigns with regard to their nature, medium and modes of dissemination.

Aims and Objectives

  • To undertake research in to the varying forms of bulling
  • To focus this research towards the varying forms of bullying within schools
  • To undertake a broad range of both primary and secondary research regarding this topic, with specific relevance being placed upon the National Curriculum
  • To identify and discuss existing mechanisms / structures which are designed to prevent / alleviate these issues within schools
  • To investigate existing policies with regards to educating difference and sexual awareness within the National Curriculum
  • To specifically refine this research towards the issue of homophobic bullying within schools
  • To identify and discuss existing strategies and mechanisms designed to prevent / alleviate these issues
  • To utilise these findings in order to create an effective awareness campaign relating to this specific form of bullying.

WHAT IS BULLYING?

The repeated intimidation of others by the real or threatened infliction of physical, verbal, written, electronically transmitted, or emotional abuse, or through attacks on the property of another. It may include, but not be limited to actions such as verbal taunts, name-calling and put downs, including ethnically-based or gender-based verbal put downs, and extortion of money or possessions.”

Bullying is a complex issue that can manifest itself in many forms. Complete agreement upon one single definition is quite difficult given the nature of the subject and the fact that, in general it is very personal experience and individual specific. This said there remains common agreement and consensus that the effects of bullying are always detrimental and that as Zimmerman et al states “is a major public health issue, the risk factors for which are poorly understood”. It is with this in mind that this research project has been undertaken in an attempt to more fully understand the potential reasons / causes of bullying in general and by doing so ultimately inform and construct an effective awareness campaign that attempts to address these inherent themes and issues.

There are numerous forms and of bullying, however the more mainstream manifestations of bullying can be described as falling into the following main categories*

CLASSIST BULLYING

In classist bullying, a person is targeted for representing a perceived class or socio-economic group. This not only impacts on the individual person, but on their families and others perceived to be from that same group.

DISABILIST BULLYING

People with Special Educational Needs or disabled people may be less able or more reluctant to articulate experiences as well as others. However, they are often at greater risk of being bullied, both directly and indirectly, and usually about their specific difficulties or disability.

HOMOPHOBIC BULLYING

In homophobic bullying, a person is targeted for being perceived as a lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender (trans) person. People do not have to be lesbian, gay, bisexual or trans to suffer homophobic bullying. This bullying not only impacts on the individual person, but on their families and others perceived to be from that same group. It may be based on gender stereotyping.

RACIST AND RELIGIOUS BULLYING

In racist and religious bullying, a person is targeted for being perceived as being a member of a different ethnic, cultural or religious, group. People do not have to be of that group to suffer racist and religious bullying. This bullying not only impacts on the individual person, but on their families and others perceived to be from that same or similar group. Inappropriate assumptions maybe made about some one’s religion or belief because of their ethnic origin.

SEXIST BULLYING

In sexist bullying, a person is targeted for being perceived as being a member of a particular gender. This bullying impacts on the individual person and on all men and women.

*It is important to note that people can be assigned to a member of more than one group.

 

Bullying in effect is a way to cause distress and disrespect either mentally of physically through the continuous tactical use of various passive or aggressive mechanisms.  These can take the form of

PHYSICAL – hitting, kicking, pinching, sexual assault, extortion, stealing, hiding belongings;

VERBAL – name calling, mockery, insulting, making offensive remarks, sexual innuendo, threatening;

INDIRECT – spreading unpleasant stories about someone, exclusion from social groups, rumour mongering, graffiti, defacing of property, display of inappropriate material

In the report entitled “Tackling Bullying” commissioned by ChildLine, funded by the DfES in 2003 saw 1000 children in 12 schools interviewed to establish why, even though the majority of schools have anti bullying policies, children are still calling ChildLine in such vast numbers.  The views of the children and young people detailed that approximately half (51%) of all primary school children and (54%) secondary pupils believed that bullying was either a big or quite a problem. However these findings appear in stark contrast when compared to the actual percentage of children who actually admitted to having personally suffered from some form of bullying themselves within the same report. Here only (28%) of all secondary school children felt that they had directly experienced some form of bullying compared to over half (51%) of all of all primary children questioned.

On a base level these research findings appear to highlight some anomalies. Indeed they even appear to actually contradict one another somewhat. Do these findings show that bullying becomes less severe / prevalent within secondary schools or are there a large proportion (26%) of children within secondary schools suffering in silence?  This attitude from children is reinforced by quotes from adults, such as:

“Bullying is a part of child hood better get used to it”

“Teasing, name-calling, excluding from games and spreading rumours have always happened and always will.”  Anonymous parent

“When nine-year-old Sebastian Clarke came home from school saying another child kept picking on him, his mum Jackie thought he was being a bit soft. ‘My first instinct was that there was no problem, or that it was just something and nothing and he’d soon sort it out,’”

Children therefore are receiving mixed messages.  Why should they report they’re suffering if they are only to be rejected further?  This lack of support from adults only adds to their isolation and misery.  I suggest that adults in caring positions such as parents/guardians and teachers need to readdress their beliefs regarding bullying and try to remove the ideology that has been firmly entrenched that bullying is acceptable and a ‘normal’ way of life. This could be achieved through a more open based form of communication where children and young people’s views are heard rather than dismissed.

It is important then to note that children have other places to turn to anonymously, such as ChildLine.  The ChildLine service counselled 141,872 during the period April 2003 to March 2004, which is a staggering increase of 18% in comparison to the 119,746 who used the service the previous year, April 2002 to March 2003.  According to Government statistics the percentage of people under age 16 fell from “25 per cent in mid-1971 to 19 per cent in mid-2004” so this increase is even more dramatic than it seems, as the youth population is the smallest it has been.  You need to confirm this for the reader.

Summary – children calling about bullying

All figures are calculated for the period 1 April to 31 March.

Table 1

2003/04 2002/03
Age Number of children % of total Number of children % of total
11 & UNDER 8498 27 5658 26
12-15 YEARS 10361 33 6911 32
16-18 YEARS 602 2 380 2
AGE NOT GIVEN * 11616 37 8917 41
TOTAL ALL CHILDREN 31077 100 21866 100

*Many children who call ChildLine choose not to give their age. Percentages are for all

Table 2

BEENBULLIED Not at all Only once or twice Sometimes(2-3 times per month) Once perweek Several times per week
OVERALL 55.5 32.3 4.3 3.8 4.1
BOYS 56.8 30.5 4.9 4.0 3.8
GIRLS 53.9 34.3 3.7 3.6 4.5
BULLYOTHERS
OVERALL 73.4 23.7 1.3 1.0 0.6
BOYS 71.9 24.1 1.7 1.5 0.8
GIRLS 75.1 23.1 0.9 0.5 0.4

 

WHY DO CHILDREN BULLY?

Bullying is a complex issue and the perpetrators who carry out this kind of attack have a varied profile as evidenced by Smith when he states that: “Children who bully others can come from any kind of family, regardless of social class or cultural background.”  There is however a general theme that continues throughout, namely that something or someone is making the bullies feel insecure and self-esteem is incredibly low.  It is understood that some bullies suffer from a lot of distress caused by grief, anxiety, or unhappiness. These bullies are most likely to use fighting, alcohol and drug abuse as mechanisms for dealing with their problems. In simplistic terms these people usually bully in order to make themselves feel better and are in need of immediate support, guidance and help.  In the “Bullying  Symptoms, Strategies and Solutions That Work.” report, ChildLine established 38% of male and 21% of female bullies had suicidal tendencies.  These percentages are evidently a reason for concern but the bullying of others is inexcusable and should clearly be prevented. At the same time we need to work with these children and young people in an attempt to address the roots of the problem as a whole.  Establishing whether they have any grievances at home or school which may be affecting them psychologically, listening to their views.

The bullies’ behaviour is usually with the intent of gaining respect.  This is usually displayed in the form of attention seeking exhibitionism in order to impress, which is at most disruptive and tends to be “defiant”, disrespectful and disapproved by others.  The bully is usually unwilling or unable to recognise and distinguish the difference between respect and fear and in their attempt to gain respect through their intimidating behaviour; they frighten their peers and disrespect their elders.  This behaviour is a form of attack whether passive or aggressive. There is a tendency and inability to accept responsibility for their actions, (although this said I am sure that this could be used across the board with regards to children’s behaviour) combined with a “lack of remorse” and empathy and the addiction to the empowerment they gain from bullying, these people in effect are a destructive force that needs to be challenged.

For some people bullying seems like normal behaviour as they have not been well informed in how to behave and it is thought that bullying takes place as a natural form within their home life.  The bully may well have suffered some form of abuse or are suffering from some form of bullying themselves within their home environment.

There are also bullies who bully through peer pressure whose behaviour is so to fit in with a larger group.  Although this is still a case for concern this type of bully feels remorse for their behaviour, therefore has a conscience and is normally willing to accept responsibility for their actions.

Another factor that could cause a person to bully is the exposure to violence either on television or through video games.  This can have a detrimental effect on a child’s personality.  Anderson states that “playing violent video games has been found to account for a 13% to 22% increase in adolescents’ violent behaviour” however the Committee on Public Education states “there has not been enough time to completely assess the influence they have on the well being of a child as they are so new.”  These games increase a child’s proclivity to violent behaviour far more than passive media such as television.  Television, although not proven to cause aggression, should be limited to only a couple of hours a day.  There needs to be a good balance of parenting, including emotional support for their children and the provision of good stimulation and physical interaction. Children who watch more than this are generally being emotionally neglected.   Browne states “Parents who don’t take a great interest in their children and what they are watching are also those parents who emotionally neglect them or physically assault them”.  These children who are neglected may tend to become more violent which may increase the factor that they go on to be bullies.  Zimmerman suggests that “maximising cognitive stimulation and limiting television watching in the early years of development might reduce children’s subsequent risk of becoming bullies.”

It is impossible then to analyse the outline of all bullies as agreement of a clear diagnosis is incomplete.  We can establish though, everybody is capable of bullying.

WHY ARE CHILDREN BULLIED?

Like the profile for a bully, the target is very varied but again has a connecting factor, this being difference.  This statement seems ridiculous for we are all different and individual which surely should be a positive thing as

”Being different is a gift…”

These differences could be such as weight, social background, race, religion, appearance, gender, sexual orientation, Special Educational Needs or disability, to name a few.  Potential targets tend to be above average academically, high achievers, imaginative and creative.  They are usually quite passive and not as physically powerful as the bully tending to avoid conflict, having a low proclivity to violence.

Children with obvious differences aren’t the only victims of bullying. Some children are victimised because they are different in some way, but many others are bullied for no obvious reason as bullies have a tendency to be opportunistic.

Moldrich writing for ChildLine understands ”that adults tend to believe that people don’t pick on others without cause,” which suggests that it is the targets fault for being bullied, however “ChildLine found in a recent survey that none of the children who admitted to bullying singled out their own or their targets individual characteristics as an explanation.”  This last statement cannot be taken for granted as I established earlier, children who bully do not accept responsibility for their actions.  Admitting to bullying is one thing, (as they are usually proud of their actions) but admitting why, requires honesty and decency and the conscience to realise that what they have done is wrong and unacceptable.

HOMOPHOBIA

The Crown Prosecution describes homophobia as

”A fear of or a dislike directed towards lesbian, gay or bisexual people, or a fear of or dislike directed towards their perceived lifestyle, culture or characteristics, whether or not any specific lesbian, gay or bisexual person has that lifestyle or characteristic. The dislike does not have to be so severe as hatred. It is enough that people do something or abstains from doing something because they do not like lesbian, gay or bisexual people.”

In 1967 Weinberg began calling some of his fellow clinicians homophobes. Homophobia was an expression considered to be an acceptable alternative form, developed more fully in his book, Society and the Healthy Homosexual, published 1972, to refer to the psychological, irrational fear of or a dislike directed towards lesbian, gay or bisexual people.In an interview by Raj Ayyar, George Weinberg is quoted as describing homophobia as:

“Homophobia is just that: a phobia. A morbid and irrational dread, which prompts irrational behaviour flight or the desire to destroy the stimulus for the phobia and anything reminiscent of it. Because human beings are the stimulus, a common homophobic reaction is brutality in many cases, as we all know. We also know its consequences.”

Homophobia is fuelled by the inability or unwillingness to change the hatred taught during childhood.  It is manifested through varying levels, that transfer and filter into primary school children, which creates, the fear of people who are different.  Alongside this is the promotion of homophobia by the various religious organisations that see same sex relationships as a threat to heterosexuality.  How can 6% of the population who cannot breed, and rely on heterosexuals’ procreation threaten humanity?  There is also the natural feeling of repulsion, as a heterosexual would feel with regards to engaging in sexual activity with the same gender.  Although they identify that same sex activity is not for them, some tend to generalise and generate the belief that it is wrong for everybody.  This is where people need educating about difference and clear acceptance needs to be put in place so that people may live their lives how they choose. Not only is homophobia an insidious, groundless fear of homosexuality and its perceived lifestyle but the fear that they themselves may be homosexual or have homosexual thoughts.  This behaviour is most commonly described as “homosexual panic” connecting homophobia with repressed homosexual urges. Researching homophobiaAdams et al found that homophobic men are aroused by homosexual stimuli although the results need more research as it has been found that fear can arouse a man, identifying the possibility that homophobic men are fearful of their own mind and responses thus being less adjusted to non homophobes with regards to sexual difference.

It is these attitudes that filter through society to young children, as they are intuitive and realise that there are definite negative associations with the word gay and being homosexual.  Although they have no inclination what happens sexually between same sex relationships they do understand it is not accepted and undesirable.

WHAT IS HOMOPHOBIC BULLYING?

Homophobic bullying is a particular type of bullying which is related to a person’s sexuality or assumed sexuality.  If young people do not conform to the stereotypical image of the dominant masculine or feminine role, which brings into question their sexual identity or perceived orientation, they will be subjected to this form of abuse.

“Homophobia can be manifested on a number of levels.”

ANTAGONISTIC BEHAVIOUR

This is behaviour that establishes a climate of homophobia, even if it is not intended to do so. 

The telling of jokes featuring homosexuals

The making of unpleasant abstract remarks

The use of innuendo and mockery, e.g. “lesbian time” (for “let’s be on time”)

The casual use of terms of abuse (e.g. Homosexual, bent, fag, faggot, gay-boy, woos, homo, poof, poofter, bender, queer, lesie, lesbo, lemon, dyke….)

The teasing of an individual rightly or wrongly identified as gay in a manner that they are thought, or claim, not to care about

 

PREJUDICIAL BEHAVIOUR AND POLICY

This is behaviour that specifically harms a specific individual or identifiable group 

the social ostracism, marginalization or rejection of individuals thought to be gay;

Gossiping or spreading rumours about someone’s sexuality

Obscene graffiti

The promotion of the idea that homosexuals are per se wicked or depraved (e.g. “god hates fags” posters)

The stipulation that some activities or benefits are only open to or appropriate for male-female or married couples

 

THREATENING BEHAVIOUR

This is behaviour that proposes physical violence to a specific individual or identifiable group. 

Incitement to violence against homosexuals in general

Personally directed verbal abuse

Taunting, ridicule and mockery

The use of obscene gestures

Intimidation and threats of material abuse

 

MATERIAL ABUSE

This is behaviour that does material harm to some person. 

Theft of property

Damage to property

Physical assault

Sexual assault

Murder

 

Homophobic bullying behaviour is generally established within the first few years of primary school.  Research has shown that 82% of teachers are aware of homophobic language.  Words that call into question young persons masculinity or femininity are incredibly damaging.  The use of the word gay is common homophobic language, used frequently within the playground and seen as a general insult and form of abuse. This word, although usually misunderstood and used out of context, is a word that children recognise as a “negative adjective.” Through this misuse of the word gay, children call into question others’ sexuality thus empowering and establishing their own identity.  This is particularly common within young boys as competitive masculinity stimulates this act of aggression.  The use of this word does not necessarily mean that the person receiving the abuse is gay but that he does not appear masculine enough.  Subjects of this abuse could be academic types, who work hard in their studies.  As Epstein describes, “boys who work hard at school are often labelled as gay and this may deter them from studying and achieving their potential.”  Academically bullies tend to be below average as it is not seen to be cool to be intelligent or seemingly to have good morals, hence they resort to “deceitfulness” and manipulation in order to succeed, this is especially prevalent in males, as they tend to reject studies and opt for more masculine areas such as sports.

The word gay is sometimes used out of turn to describe something that is dysfunctional or worthless.  Children may use the word to describe an object, for example “This computer isn’t working it’s being gay.”  Clearly the computer cannot feel sexual urges and so the description is because it is being dysfunctional.

GAY, slang (chiefly U.S.). Foolish, stupid, socially inappropriate or disapproved of; ‘lame’. Oxford English Dictionary SECOND EDITION 1989

Amazingly one could speculate that it is society’s prejudiced view on homosexuality that has transformed this word into this negative adjective, as being gay is deemed socially inappropriate and undesirable. Children are generally unaware in primary school years about sexual difference and sexuality and this use of homophobic language sees prejudice firmly entrenched in these early years, as Jennett discusses, “are likely to be highly resistant to change in later life.”

This view clearly does not promote a healthy environment for a same sex attracted young person to consider disclosing their sexuality or ‘come out’.  This is very difficult for young people as all they know is who they are.

The famous 1948 Kinsey report came up with the unpopular and startling result that as many as 10% of the male population was homosexual, basing this on self reported homo-gender sexual activity. Recently the government, Department of Trade and Industry has recently released the first official figures regarding what part of the population is homosexual.  Statistics show that “just over 6%” of the United Kingdom is gay or lesbian” asTowney quotes the DTI.  This figure does not include the people who are homosexual that will not come out or disclose themselves as gay or lesbian, in fear of family or social ostracism.

Previous available data suggests that between 2-9% of young people may have had some same-sex sexual experience. The 2001 census found there was a population of 58,789,194 and around 20% of that figure are under 16.  That would suggest that there are approximately 11,757,839 children under 16.  If we then apply the 6% DTI figure we could estimate then that there are a possible 705,470 homosexual children.

IMPACT OF HOMOPHOBIC BULLYING

‘I think it can make a difference if someone explains to bullies what effects they have on people, so they can understand the gravity of their actions. Maybe if the people who bullied me had heard that I tried to commit suicide, it would have made a difference.’

Rivers’ (1998) study of lesbian, gay and bisexual youth found that

82 per cent had experienced name-calling at school,

71 per cent had been ridiculed,

60 per cent had been hit or kicked,

59 per cent had the subject of rumours,

58 per cent had been teased,

52 per cent had been frightened by a look or stare,

49 per cent had experienced theft,

40 per cent had attempted suicide.

 

The rate of suicide among young lesbians, gay men and bisexual people in the UK is much higher than the average for young people andsince 1984 attempted suicide has doubled from 20% to 40% for same sex attracted pupils.  This is an appalling figure, which is in desperate need of attention. If there are a possible 705,470 homosexual children and 40% of those attempt suicide, the calculation suggests that 282,188 children have slipped through the net and not been helped by society or the education system.  There needs to be clear recognition of homosexual children in order to establish how best to tackle this issue.

THE EXTENT OF HOMOPHOBIC BULLYING IN SCHOOLS

What is wrong? Homophobic bullying is endemic in British schools.  Four in five secondary school teachers say they are aware of verbal homophobic bullying. One in four secondary teachers are aware of physical homophobic bullying. Just 6 per cent of British schools have fully inclusive anti-bullying policies which address homophobic bullying.

In civilised society it is thought that homosexuality is becoming more acceptable and homophobic bullying is decreasing but for young people within the school environment this may not be true as the tables below describe

Table 3

In 1984 a survey of LGB young people found that: In 1998, a GALOP survey found that:
60% had experienced verbal abuse 83% had experienced verbal abuse
20% had been beaten up. 47% had experienced physical abuse.

Table 4 Experiences of homophobic bullying.

Male (%) Female (%)
             Name-calling 85 69
             Public ridicule 75 54
             Hitting/kicking 68 31
             Rumour mongering 57 67
             Teasing 58 56
             Frightened by a look/stare 54 44
             Belongings taken 47 31
             Social isolation 24 41
             Sexual assault 13 5

Table 5 Homophobic bullying in secondary schools: where it happens.

Corridors Classrooms School grounds Changingrooms On way home Otherplaces
Name-calling ??? ??? ? ?
Teasing ?
Hitting/kicking ?? ??
Frightened by look/stare ? ?? ??? ?? ?
Rumour mongering ?? ??
Public ridicule ?? ??? ?? ? ?
Sexual assault ?
Belongings taken ? ?

??? = frequently ?? = regularly ? = sometimes

Homophobic bullying incidents are generally left unnoticed and go unchallenged due to schools’, society’s and religious movements’ denial of the existence of homosexual children and also the wide acceptance of the hegemonic masculine attitude boys display.  Such homophobic incidents may also go unreported, as a homosexual child could be embarrassed with regards to the situation and the social in-acceptance and invisibility they may feel.

EDUCATION

”We need to work with these children and young people, not just to suspend them, Adrienne asserted. One young victim said that suspension just gave the bully time off to lie in bed and plan how to attack them at the end of the day! “

Adrienne Katz

Director of Young Voice

SEXUAL AWARENESS EDUCATION AND STRATEGIES

The government issued the “Sex and Relationship Education Guidance“ booklet that advises teachers and members of schools about structuring their policy.  This policy is required to be up to date and developed with input from parents and guardians and inclusive of all pupils.  There is the need for consultation of carers with regards to sex and relationship education, especially for primary school pupils.  Although as established earlier homophobic and sexist language is firmly entrenched in this educational environment and I feel there needs to be a firm policy addressing these factors before the hegemonic masculine, misogynist and homophobic attitudes are developed.  Also included should be how this information will be delivered allowing the parent/carer decide on the appropriateness of this subject regarding their child.  As it is not the sole responsibility of the school to educate children in this sensitive area, the school should work harmoniously with the parents.  This can be easier said than done, as many people find addressing the subject of sex and relationships difficult, not only parents but teachers as well.  Extra support maybe required in informing educators within the school especially areas regarding homosexuality and same sex relationships.  There is a particular need to address all forms of sexual behaviour as pupils whom adults think are not engaging in sexual activity, usually are and the rate of infections transmitted sexually are incredibly prevalent within young teens. Occurrence of sexually transmitted infections is continuing to rise and the incidence of HIV/AIDS infection remains unacceptably high, particularly for young men. 39%of those with AIDS in the UK are in their 20’s, most of whom will have contracted HIV in their teens.  This can only affirm the necessity for a more informative sex and relationship education.  There seems to be a great deal of concern for the emotional well being of children, yet the facts are evident that they go out and find out for themselves unknowing the consequences that occur.  I realise that some pupils will not be exercising their sexuality as early as others but nevertheless I feel there is a need to educate all pupils regardless.  If the continuation of this lack of information regarding sex and relationships, their enjoyment and hazards, the figures discussed earlier will only increase.  Schools therefore have an obligation to educate, along with carers the varying aspects regarding this sensitive area.  I have therefore isolated specific chapters within the policy document highlighting certain areas that incorporate the education of homosexual/same-sex relationships and difference.

Chapter 4 to the Sex and Relationship Education Guidance Head teachers, Teachers & School Governors Status: good practice shown below

4. This is the first time that schools have had a national framework to support work in this area. As part of sex and relationship education, pupils should be taught about the nature and importance of marriage for family life and bringing up children. But the Government recognises – as in the Home Office, Ministerial Group on the Family consultation document “Supporting Families”- that there are strong and mutually supportive relationships outside marriage. Therefore pupils should learn the significance of marriage and stable relationships as key building blocks of community and society. Care needs to be taken to ensure that there is no stigmatisation of children based on their home circumstances.

 

This chapter sees the recognition of same sex carers and parents as stable homes.  This along with the recent acknowledgement with regards to the civil partnership denotes this as a positive recognition.  Although this recognition does not seem to stretch to the educational environment, as established earlier in1984 60% of homosexual pupils experienced verbal abuse and 20% had been beaten up whereas, 1998, 83% had experienced verbal abuse and 47% had experienced physical abuse.  This is an enormous increase, which clearly needs rectifying.  As highlighted in Table 3 these figures are not on the decrease.

5 Pupils need also to be given accurate information and helped to develop skills to enable them to understand difference and respect themselves and others and for the purpose also of preventing and removing prejudice. Secondary pupils should learn to understand human sexuality, learn the reasons for delaying sexual activity and the benefits to be gained from such delay, and learn about obtaining appropriate advice on sexual health.

Paragraph 5 establishes the need for education with regards to human difference.  Although this is not recommended until secondary school, the removal of prejudice will become much harder.  As discussed earlier bullying and prejudice against homosexuals is firmly entrenched in primary school and prevention will be too late.  Clearly there needs to be more research into the ways of delivering the information, regarding loving, stable relationships that are outside marriage to primary children.  This information does not need to involve sex.

1.25 It is therefore important for policies to be both culturally appropriate and inclusive of all children. Primary and secondary schools should consult parents and pupils both on what is included, and on how it is delivered. For example, for some children it is not culturally appropriate to address particular issues in a mixed group. Consulting pupils and their families will help to establish what is appropriate and acceptable for them. Generally, parents appreciate support from the school, if they are consulted and involved.

There need to be clear involvement with parents and carers to ensure a positive acceptable delivery of information.  This is to account for other religious and cultural beliefs. It is necessary to respect others wishes although I do firmly believe that if consulted by a pupil information should be delivered respectfully, giving great consideration to their position.

 

SEXUAL IDENTITY AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION

1.30 It is up to schools to make sure that the needs of all pupils are met in their programmes. Young people, whatever their developing sexuality, need to feel that sex and relationship education is relevant to them and sensitive to their needs.  The Secretary of State for Education and Employment is clear that teachers should be able to deal honestly and sensitively with sexual orientation, answer appropriate questions and offer support. There should be no direct promotion of sexual orientation.

No direct promotion means just that.  Heterosexuality should not be promoted as better than homosexuality; this is clearly identified within this policy, as the use of copy is not directly promotional of any sexuality.  As established earlier in chapter 4 of the booklet there are recognised stable relationships outside that of heterosexuality and marriage.

1.31 Sexual orientation and what is taught in schools is an area of concern for some parents. Schools that liaise closely with parents when developing their sex and relationship education policy and programme should be able to reassure parents of the content of the programme and the context in which it will be presented.

1.32 Schools need to be able to deal with homophobic bullying. Guidance issued by the Department (Social Inclusion: Pupil Support Circular 10/99) dealt with the unacceptability of and emotional distress and harm caused by bullying in whatever form – be it racial, as a result of a pupil’s appearance, related to sexual orientation or for any other reason.

We have identified earlier that schools do not address homophobic bullying as vigilantly as they should.  The fact that 6% of schools, the same percent of the homosexual population, have a fully inclusive policy, which covers homophobic bullying is insufficient as the amount of same sex attracted youths that attempt suicide is 40%.  This figure is in desperate need of attention and we all need to realise that there are children very much in need of our help.

CURRENT STRATEGIES

In the, Bullying, Don’t Suffer in Silence- an anti-bullying pack for schools, Professor Peter Smith states that:

23. Strategies for reducing such bullying include:

Including it in the school’s anti-bullying policy – so pupils know discrimination is wrong and the school will act

Covering it in INSET days on bullying in general

Guaranteeing confidentiality and appropriate advice to lesbian and gay pupils

Challenging homophobic language

Exploring issues of diversity and difference – discussing what schools and society can do to end discrimination

Exploring pupils’ understanding of their use of homophobic language – they may not understand the impact

 

A selection of schools have policies focussing particularly on behaviour, but because of the varying degrees of bullying and that, as established earlier is a very personal experience and individual specific, schools are therefore looking toward different approaches which include the ”No-Blame Approach, the Pikas Method, Circle Time and Peer Counselling.” 

THE NO-BLAME APPROACH

The initial step is to interview the target, who is then asked to draw a picture or write a poem on how the bullying has made them feel and the effect it is having. The next is a group meeting incorporating a group of students including the bullies, bystanders and people who are not involved, along with a teacher.  They then discuss how the bullied target is feeling and the group then aim to find a solution through the suggestion of positive, practical problem solving solutions.

The purpose of this approach is to stop the bully from feeling threatened and that they are not being blamed for what they have done but they can be a positive part in finding the solution to the problem.  The bystanders are involved in the discussion as their lack of intervention regarding the bullying is seen as an action, which makes allowances for the bullying.

It is then each individual’s responsibility to carry out the found solution and each have a responsibility to ensure that no bullying takes place.  Thus including the bullied target in play times and ensuring future involvement.

Progress is monitored when the group next meets which is usually around a week later.  The children then discuss what they have achieved.  This is supposed to give the children a feeling of success.

If a school decides to employ this method, its approach needs to be clearly discussed with the parents/carer of the target.  It has been found that many parents seem to believe that this method lets the bully off without punishment, as usually emotions run quite high when a parent finds out their child is the target of bullying.  This said the “No Blame” approach was a resounding success in hull when it was carried out in Hull.  From the 55 cases that used this method there was an 80% success rate which seems an incredibly successful amount.

THE PIKAS METHOD OF SHARED CONCERN

This strategy to deal with bullying is apparently quite effective.  It involves a counsellor discussing the issue with the bullying ringleader and then with his comrades before any contact has been made with the target.  This is so the target does not appear to have been naming names and placing the blame.

The discussion then sees the counsellor explaining that no blame has been placed and how the target is feeling with regard to the current situation.  The bullies are then asked how they think the situation could be improved.  If no suggestions are made then the counsellor may do so.  This method of communicating initially with the bullies prevents antagonism and the defensive behaviour a bully might feel.  Also with the removal of punishment avoids the possibilities of tension and the bully retaliating.

The next step after adequate suggestions have been made, the counsellor meets with the target and then evaluates from their point of view.  The counsellor also analyses the target ensuring that they are not provoking the situation.  If so this is acknowledged without the counsellor judging or blaming.

A series of individual meetings are held with the people involved which then leads to a whole group meeting to acknowledge that the problem has been resolved.

CIRCLE TIME

Circle time is used in many schools.  The structure is that the children sit in a circle and for a short period of time, play games or do something enjoyable.  After that period they are then able to discuss issues that they have as a group, which can include bullying.  This seems strange that the reward comes first but I imagine that this method eases the children into a comfortable environment so that the group can communicate efficiently.  This dynamic setting is usually coupled with the use of an object, which determines that the only person who holds it shall speak.  With the use of this implement the group cannot shout out or laugh at the person holding the object.

The teacher can use this time effectively and get to the root of issues by asking some key questions, for instance, “If anybody knows anyone who is being bullied then change places.”  The children then change places if they know of anyone.  This gives the teacher a great insight into the size of the problem.

PEER GROUP PROGRAMMES

These strategies are a combined method of communication brought together to ensure the school is a safe place and that bullying is not tolerated.  They are usually implemented in secondary schools as assurance that new pupils will feel safe.

The older pupils participating in the scheme are volunteers and are usually girls.  They undergo an intense training program for a month, learning about aspects of bullying and the effects it has on people’s lives.  These pupils are generally identified by a badge or ribbon and are there to help.  They also learn to deal with younger people who are suffering from aspects of bullying.  They do not deal with this just by themselves, as there is a strong teacher involvement as some of the possible issues that could be encountered could be aspects such as child abuse.

Alongside the support of these volunteers is a designated room for where people who have not yet made any friends, to spend time at lunch or break time, where they can interact with people like themselves and establish relationships.  Here they can use the space to play indoor games, chat and continue with their studies.  For children who are experiencing bullying or have any issues they need resolving, but wish to remain anonymous have the opportunity to air their grievances through the use of boxes situated around the school where children can post notes with their issues on.

‘TELLING’ SCHOOLS

A strategy that is becoming increasingly more popular and effective within schools is the ‘telling’ method.  If the bullied target is too afraid to report the bullying the bystanders are aware that it is their responsibility to report to a person of authority.  The bystander will not be accused of telling tales although we know that some children fear that they too will be bullied, but if the reporting continues then the bully will never get away with the crime and the school will become a safer place, although we will never actually resolve why the child bullies.

 

These strategies all seem very liberal in their approach and I do hope that it is because these methods have made bullying easier to report that the figures have become ever more increasingly high, even though the population of people 16 and under is far less than the last census.  I hope that bullying campaigns and strategies help to bring the numbers down.

PREVIOUS AND CURRENT CAMPAIGNS

A 60 second film is to be launched on 3 Sept by Ivan Lewis to support his zero tolerance message that all forms of bullying are unacceptable and encourages children to ‘tell someone’ if they are being bullied. We see young people in a series of everyday situations finding creative ways to share their problem with adults, including a parent, grandparents, a teacher, a lunchtime supervisor and ChildLine.

This campaign by Ivan Lewis identifies the need to tell somebody about the bullying and not to suffer in silence.  As discussed earlier there is a great deal of bullying that goes unreported, as children do not see adults as supportive figures as a huge percentage of pupils identified a great deal of risk associated with informing adults about the incidents as adults are seen as thinking that it is just part of growing up.  This campaign I feel is greatly necessary and wonderfully executed. Awareness created by this campaign identifies that the targets have supporting roles to turn to and not to be afraid of reporting the incidents. Within this campaign the children attempt to communicate with adults through various means possible.

There has also been another recent campaign involving some celebrities, such as Sharon Osbourne, Vernon Kaye and the Sugarbabes to mention a few.  This was part of the www.need2know.co.uk campaign, which incorporated the promotion of the blue anti bullying band.  The campaign was the delivery of a poem by the various celebrities that was courtesy of Bully Online.  For me this campaign I feel was nothing more than promotion material for the celebrities own careers.  The delivery of the poem felt false and provoked a negative response from me.  I realise that children will admire the influential people that clearly do not condone bullying, and hopefully they will take notice and not continue to bully.  Although this poem is from the eyes of the bullied, in an attempt to make the bully realise that the target is just a person like them.  We know that there are a great deal of similarities between target and bully but we also know that the majority of bullies feel no remorse for their actions. It is with this thought in mind that I continue to think that this campaign is unsuccessful in its delivery.

APPLICATION OF THEORY

Rivers’ (1998) study of lesbian, gay and bisexual youth found that 82 per cent had experienced name calling at school, 71 per cent had been ridiculed, 60 per cent had been hit or kicked, 58 per cent had been teased, 59 per cent had the subject of rumours, 49 per cent had experienced theft, 52 per cent had been frightened by a look or stare, and 40 per cent had attempted suicide.”

JAKE, 18 “There was one bloke who really annoyed me. He had a funny high-pitched voice and he jumped even if you just said ‘Hello.’ We hid his stuff, pushed him out of queues, and everyone knew better than to talk to him. We just did it for a laugh. I suppose he must have hated us.” 

DARREN, 17 “I suppose I just messed around most of the time at school. I had a couple of mates and we used to make the younger kids pay us every week or we’d give them a right kicking. We must have been pretty frightening. None of that’s much good to me now.”

JAY, 15 “It got to be a habit.  I felt good seeing him cry. The others laughed and that made me feel even better. But then the teacher said that he was in the hospital because he had tried to hurt himself to get away from the bullying. It was only a bit of fun really – I didn’t mean him to take it seriously.”

I felt that there was a need to take a different point of view regarding this global problem, so my approach was to use quotes from real bullies (written above).  The delivery of these quotes would mean different things for different people, be they bullies, bystanders, targets or adults.  Although I hope that they listen to what is being said, along with the horrific statistics, described above, and acknowledge that bullying behaviour is wrong thus dis-empowering bullies.

I chose a black screen to display the statistics in white, which is very simple and effective.  This choice had to be simple, as the viewer has to concentrate on both what is being said and the information displayed.  My choice of font was, Univers Bold Extended, which I feel is incredibly effective as it’s legibility on screen is excellent.  I had attempted many other choices, which were unacceptable, such as Impact, Futura and Helvetica to name but a few.  None of these fonts displayed the horrific information with such impact, as does Univers.

The end result I feel is a hard-hitting, factual piece, which encases, cause and symptom together, effectively.

 CONCLUSION

Bullying is a huge global problem to which there is no one solution.  The main problem I feel with regard to homophobic bullying is that a lot of changes need to happen within society before we can expect this to filter through to the education system.  The fact that only 6% of schools have a fully inclusive bullying policy, incorporating homophobic bullying and the current curriculum, seems to be a clear disregard for the guidelines established by the government.   It seems that schools not only deny that they have homosexual pupils but that they also deny they have any bullying at all.  There needs to be clear acceptance that homosexual children exist and are acknowledged before schools can move forward and stamp out this form of bullying.

Within British culture there is a need to censor children from sexuality, assuming that they would benefit from this.  Through this action in an attempt to preserve a child’s “innocence” they leave them ignorant to important factors such as disease, abuse and loving relationships as described earlier.  With the removal of this censorship we can hope to eliminate prejudices in the hope of making a more tolerant environment for school children to feel secure and safe.

I can only hope that bullying ceases to exist.

 

Bibliography

(2005) This Month in Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 159, 313-.

COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC, E. (2001) Media Violence. Pediatrics, 108, 1222-1226.

Ayyar, R., George Weinberg: Love is Conspiratorial, Deviant & Magical[online]. (Vol. VIII Issue 167) Available from: http://www.gaytoday.com/interview/110102in.asp (1 of 8)3/1/2006 3:14:45 pm

Browne, Professor Kevin. University of Birmingham. TV ‘could create child bullies’ . 15 June 2006 <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4408709.stm>

EPSTEIN, D. D. (2000) Schooling Sexualities. London, Open University Press.

HANCOX, R. J., MILNE, B. J. & POULTON, R. (2005) Association of Television Viewing During Childhood With Poor Educational Achievement. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 159, 614-618.

Moldrich, Chrissan.  ChildLine, Bullying Factsheet Information for teachers and professionals working with young people

NANSEL, T. R. & OVERPECK, M. D. (2003) Operationally Defining “Bullying”–Reply. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 157, 1135-.

OLIVER, C. & CANDAPPA, M. (2003) Tackling Bullying: Listening to the views of children and young people. Thomas Coram Research Unit, Institute of Education.

OZMERT, E., TOYRAN, M. & YURDAKOK, K. (2002) Behavioral Correlates of Television Viewing in Primary School Children Evaluated by the Child Behavior Checklist. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 156, 910-914.

Rivers, I. (1998) cited in Mullen, Andy. (2001) Mesmac Inclusive Schools.  Bradford

Rivers, I (2000) “Social exclusion, absenteeism and sexual minority youth” in Support for Learning, 15(1),13-18 NASEN  cited in http://www.geocities.com/pharsea/bullying.html

Rivers, I. (2001), The bullying of sexual minorities at school: Its nature and long-term correlates, Educational and Child Psychology, 18 (1): 33-46.

SALUJA, G., IACHAN, R., SCHEIDT, P. C., OVERPECK, M. D., SUN, W. & GIEDD, J. N. (2004) Prevalence of and Risk Factors for Depressive Symptoms Among Young Adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 158, 760-765.

SMITH, P. P. Bullying Don’t Suffer in Silence- an anti-bullying pack for schools. Goldsmiths College, University of London.

Townley, Ben. 15 June 2006 <http://www.gay.com/news/article.html?2005/12/12/4>

Trenchard, L. and Warren, H. (1984) ‘Something To Tell You’ – The Experiences of Young Lesbians and Young Gay Men in London, London: London Gay Teenage Group.

ZIMMERMAN, F. J., GLEW, G. M., CHRISTAKIS, D. A. & KATON, W. (2005) Early Cognitive Stimulation, Emotional Support, and Television Watching as Predictors of Subsequent Bullying Among Grade-School Children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 159, 384-388.

Endnotes

  1. 1 www.aaps.k12.mi.us/aaps.forparents/parents.studentrr/definitions
  2. 2 Oliver, C. & Candappa, M. (2003) Tackling Bullying: listening to the views of children and young people, London, DfES.
  3. 3 Channel 4, 3 minute wonder, Bully for you, 1 December 2005 09:25
  4. 4 Moldrich, Chrissan. ChildLine Bullying Factsheet Information for teachers and professionals working with young people.
  5. 5 Moorhead, Joanna. is your child being bullied? 15 June 2006 <http://www.channel4.com/health/microsites/F/family/problems/bullying.html>
  6. 615 June 2006 <http://www.statistics.gov.uk/>
  7. 7 <http://www.ChildLine.org.uk/bullying-biggesteverriseincalls.asp>
  8. 8 Smith, Professor Peter. Bullying Don’t Suffer in Silence- an anti-bullying pack for schools(Goldsmiths College, University of London).
  9. 9 Bullying Don’t Suffer in Silence – an anti-bullying pack for schools Professor Peter Smith  (Goldsmiths College, University of London).
  10. 10 Katz, Adrienne. Bullying  Symptoms, Strategies and Solutions That Work.  A ChildLine Conference. London,
  11. 11 “antisocial personality disorder n.”  A Dictionary of Psychology. Andrew M. Colman. Oxford University Press, 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.  Salford University.  15 June 2006  <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t87.e546>
  12. 12 “oppositional defiant disorder n.”  A Dictionary of Psychology. Andrew M. Colman. Oxford University Press, 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.  Salford University. 15 June 2006  <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t87.e5798>
  13. 13 The Impact of Interactive Violence on Children. Hearing Before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. 106th Cong, 1st Sess (2000) (statement of Craig Anderson, Professor, Iowa State University, Department of Psychology)
  14. 14 Committee on Public Education AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS 1222 PEDIATRICS Vol. 108 No. 5 November 2001 Media Violence <http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/108/5/1222>
  15. 15 Browne, Professor Kevin. University of Birmingham. TV ‘could create child bullies’ . 15 June 2006 <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4408709.stm>
  16. 16 ZIMMERMAN, F. J., GLEW, G. M., CHRISTAKIS, D. A. & KATON, W. (2005) Early Cognitive Stimulation, Emotional Support, and Television Watching as Predictors of Subsequent Bullying Among Grade-School Children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 159, 384-388.
  17. 17 Channel 4, 3 minute wonder, Bully for you, 1 December 2005 09:25
  18. 18Moldrich, Chrissan.  ChildLine, Bullying Factsheet Information for teachers and professionals working with young people
  19. 19 <http://www.cps.gov.uk/publications/prosecution/hmpbcpol.html#Terminology>20 Ayyar, R., George Weinberg: Love is Conspiratorial, Deviant & Magical[online]. (Vol. VIII Issue 167) Available from: http://www.gaytoday.com/interview/110102in.asp (1 of 8)3/1/2006 3:14:45 pm21 <http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/homophobia.html>
  20. 22 3/18/99Is Homophobia Associated With Homosexual Arousal? by Henry E. Adams, Ph.D., Lester W. Wright, Jr., Ph.D. and Bethany A. Lohr, in Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Vol. 105, No. 3, pp 440-445. http://www.selfhelpmagazine.com/articles/glb/glbtphobia.html
  21. 23 Trenchard, I. and Warren, H. (1984) “Something to tell you.” Cited in http://www.geocities.com/pharsea/bullying.html24 Rivers, I (2000) “Social exclusion, absenteeism and sexual minority youth” in Support for Learning, 15(1),13-18 NASEN  cited in http://www.geocities.com/pharsea/bullying.html
  22. 25 15 June 2006<http://www.geocities.com/pharsea/bullying.html>
  23. 26 <http://www.avert.org/ygmt3.htm>
  24. 27 “hegemonic masculinity”  A Dictionary of Sociology. John Scott and Gordon Marshall. Oxford University Press 2005. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.  Salford University.  15 June 2006  <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t88.e992>
  25. 28 Epstein, Dr Debbie. Section 28 makes teachers ignore bullying 7 February 2000.  15 June 2006 <http://ioewebserver.ioe.ac.uk/ioe/cms/get.asp?cid=1397&1397_1=1987>
  26. 29 “conduct disorder n.”  A Dictionary of Psychology. Andrew M. Colman. Oxford University Press, 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.  Salford University.  15 June 2006  <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t87.e1759>
  27. 30 Jennett, Mark. Stand up for us. Challenging homophobia in schools
  28. 31 15 June 2006<http://www.geocities.com/pharsea/bullying.html>
  29. 32 Townley, Ben. 15 June 2006<http://www.gay.com/news/article.html?2005/12/12/4>
  30. 33 Figures for numbers of lesbian or gay young people are based on findings from the National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (NATSAL) of nearly 19,000 people published in 2000. This asked respondents whether they had ‘Ever had a sexual experience with a same sex partner?’ or ‘Ever had sexual intercourse/genital contact with a same sex partner?’ – the percentages quoted here are for young people aged 16-24. Applying these figures to pupils under 16 whose sexual practices are likely to be different is problematic. However, the figure is likely to underestimate the numbers of young people who identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual (or who think they might be) and who have not had same-sex sexual experience. For further information, see a summary of key figures from AVERT, available online at: http://www.avert.org/hsexu1.htm Accessed 28 May, 2004 Homophobia, Sexual Orientation and Schools: a Review and Implications for Action Ian Warwick, Elaine Chase and Peter Aggleton Thomas Coram Research Unit Institute of Education, University of London with Sue Sanders Schools Out
  31. 34 BULLYING HOW TO BEAT IT A Child Line conference 2003confereport.pdf
  32. 35 Rivers, Ian. (1998) cited in Mullen, Andy. (2001) Mesmac Inclusive Schools.  Bradford
  33. 36 ILGA-Europe, (2000) p.17. <http://www.nihrc.org/documents/pubs/inr/growup.pdf>
  34. 37 Bullying  Symptoms, Strategies and Solutions That Work.  A ChildLine Conference3
  35. 8 Rivers, I. (2001), The bullying of sexual minorities at school: Its nature and long-term correlates, Educational and Child Psychology, 18 (1): 33-46.
  36. 39 Bullying A Child Line conference Symptoms, strategies and solutions that work. bullyingconferencereport2001.pdf
  37. 40Sex and Relationship Education Guidance Head teachers, Teachers & School Governors Status: good practice Date of issue: July 2000 Ref: DfEE 0116/2000 <www.dfes.gov.uk/sreguidance/sexeducation.pdf>
  38. 41 Trenchard, L. and Warren, H. (1984) ‘Something To Tell You’ – The Experiences of Young Lesbians and Young Gay Men in London, London: London Gay Teenage Group.
  39. 42 Bullying Don’t Suffer in Silence- an anti-bullying pack for schools Professor Peter Smith(Goldsmiths College, University of London).
  40. 43 15 June 2006 <http://www.bullying.co.uk/school/bullying_policie.htm>
  41. 44 Rivers, Ian. (1998) cited in Mullen, Andy. (2001) Mesmac Inclusive Schools.  Bradford